Data exploration for Object Detection

資料整體的品質

首先可以對整個資料集做一個初步的檢查,包含

  1. 瀏覽整份資料集
  2. 確認沒有嚴重有誤的照片(例如全黑的照片)
  3. 確認所有照片都能夠被電腦讀取(以免訓練到一半程式被中斷)

照片尺寸和深寬比

對於整份資料集,統計所有照片的深寬比和尺寸十分重要,這些將會影響anchor size 和 ratios。通常有三種情況

  1. 照片大小和深寬比都一樣:
    只需要決定縮放比例
  2. 照片大小和深寬比不同但差異不大,深寬比都介於0.7~1.5:
    可以non-destructive resize(也就是不改變深寬比的縮放) -> padding
  3. 照片大小和深寬比差異很大

參考:
https://neptune.ai/blog/data-exploration-for-image-segmentation-and-object-detection

makefile教學

Makefiles用途

用來決定大型程式需要被重新編譯的部分。

第一個範例

首先安裝make,並且將下面程式放到名稱為Makefile的檔案裡面。注意Makefile必須要用TAB來縮排而不是用空白鍵。

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hello:
echo "Hello, World"

接下來在Makefile所在的資料夾位置下make指令

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$ make
echo "Hello, World"
Hello, World

Makefile語法

Makefile是由許多的規則組合而成,每一條則看起來如下

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targets: prerequisites
command
command
command
  • targets是檔案名稱,用空白建作為分隔。通常每個rule只有一個target
  • command是產生targets的一系列的步驟。command以Tab作為開頭,而不是空白鍵。
  • prerequisites也是檔案名稱,以空白鍵作為分隔,這些是指令開始製作target前必須存在的檔案,因此這些檔案也可以稱為dependencies

Make基礎元素

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hello:
echo "Hello, World"
echo "This line will always print, because the file hello does not exist."

以這個範例來說,

  • 有一個名為hello的target
  • 這個target有兩個command
  • 這個target沒有prerequisites
    接下來我們執行make hello,由於hello檔不存在,所以下面的指令會被執行。如果hello檔存在,make就不會做任何事。
    特別注意在這裡hello同時代表target以及檔案,因為通常來說下面的command執行的目的就是要生成target。
    下面舉一個編譯c語言的例子,首先我們製作一個blah.c檔。
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    // blah.c
    int main() { return 0; }
    接下來製作另一個Makefile
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    blah:
    cc blah.c -o blah
    接下來執行make,因為我們每有在第一個參數指定目標target,所以第一個target會被執行。第一次執行的時blah檔會被生成,如果再執行一次就會出現make: 'blah' is up to date的訊息,因為blah檔已經存在了。但是這有一個問題,如果我們更動blah.c檔案,make並不會重新編譯!!
    要解決這個問題就必須要增加prerequisite。
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    blah: blah.c
    cc blah.c -o blah
    我們增加了blah的prerequisite,這時候make就除了檢查blah有沒有存在以外,還會另外去檢查blah.c是不是比blah還新。這裡我們可以看到make是利用系統的時間戳來判定blah.c有沒有被修改過,因此如果修改blah.c之後又把blah.c時間戳改回修改前的時間,那make就會以為blah.c沒有被修改過。

Make clean

clean常用來清除make產生的檔案,但是他並不是make的關鍵字。可以用make clean清除make產生的檔案。我們可以在makefile中編寫clean要清除的檔案。注意clean這個target除非你用make clean指令,不然他不會被執行。

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some_file: 
touch some_file

clean:
rm -f some_file

Makefile使用相對路徑

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https://stackoverflow.com/a/3342259

Variables

變數Variables只能夠是字串,並且用:=賦值。對make來說單引號跟雙引號並意義,make會把他當成字元來處理。因此賦值的時候不需要加引號。
下面範例使用Variables

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files := file1 file2
some_file: $(files)
echo "Look at this variable: " $(files)
touch some_file

file1:
touch file1
file2:
touch file2

clean:
rm -f file1 file2 some_file

要引用變數可以用${}或是$()

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x := dude

all:
echo $(x)
echo ${x}

# Bad practice, but works
echo $x

Targets

all target

可以用來依次產生所有需要的target,通常會放在第一個target的位置,如此一來只要下make指令就可以生成所有target。

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all: one two three

one:
touch one
two:
touch two
three:
touch three

clean:
rm -f one two three

多個target

當一個rule有多個target的時候,底下的command就會針對每一個target都跑一次
$@就是一個有target名稱的automatic variable,下面範例就可以用$@看看現在command正在執行的是哪一個target

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all: f1.o f2.o

f1.o f2.o:
echo $@
# Equivalent to:
# f1.o:
# echo f1.o
# f2.o:
# echo f2.o

Automatic Variables and Wildcards

* 萬用字元

在cmake中*%在cmake中都是萬用字元,但是它們代表的意義不一樣。*最好要包裝在wildcard 萬用字符函式中。否則可能會常陷入下面常見的陷阱。

  1. 陷阱: *不能直接在變量定義中使用
  2. 陷阱: 當*未匹配任何文件時,它會保持不變(除非在萬用字符函數(wildcard)中運行)。
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    thing_wrong := *.o # Don't do this! '*' will not get expanded
    thing_right := $(wildcard *.o)

    all: one two three four

    # Fails, because $(thing_wrong) is the string "*.o"
    one: $(thing_wrong)

    # Stays as *.o if there are no files that match this pattern :(
    two: *.o

    # Works as you would expect! In this case, it does nothing.
    three: $(thing_right)

    # Same as rule three
    four: $(wildcard *.o)

% 萬用字元

%非常有用,但由於它可以在各種情況下使用,因此有些令人困惑。

  1. 在“匹配”模式下使用時,它會在字符串中匹配一個或多個字符。此匹配稱為stem。
  2. 在“替換”模式下使用時,它會取出匹配的stem,並將其替換為一個字符串。
  3. 在規則定義和某些特定函數中最常用。

Automatic Variables

這裡有完整的Automatic Variables表,下面只介紹常用的

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hey: one two
# Outputs "hey", since this is the target name
# 印出目前的target
echo $@

# Outputs all prerequisites newer than the target
# 印出所有比target新的prerequisite
echo $?

# Outputs all prerequisites
# 印出所有的prerequisite
echo $^

touch hey

one:
touch one

two:
touch two

clean:
rm -f hey one two

Rules

Make的隱藏規則

CC CXX CFLAGS CXXFLAGS LDFLAGS LDLIBS這些變數是make的隱藏規則。

  • CC : 編譯C語言的編譯器; 預設是 cc
  • CXX : 編譯C++語言的編譯器; 預設是 g++
  • CFLAGS : 給C語言編譯器的額外參數
  • CXXFLAGS : 給C++語言編譯器的額外參數
  • CPPFLAGS : 給C/C++編譯器的額外參數
  • LDFLAGS : 給連結器的額外參數

下面範例使用隱藏規則

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CC = gcc # 使用gcc來編譯C語言
CFLAGS = -g # 給gcc的額外參數,開啟debug模式

# 隱藏規則 #1: blah會由C連接器產生(即使我們的command沒有呼叫C連接器)
# 隱藏規則 #2: blah.o 會由c編譯器產生,因為blah.c存在(即使我們的command沒有呼叫c編譯器)
blah: blah.o

blah.c:
echo "int main() { return 0; }" > blah.c

clean:
rm -f blah*

Static Pattern Rules

他的語法如下

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targets...: target-pattern: prereq-patterns ...
commands

這個語法的意思是,如果有一個target符合target-pattern(利用% wildcard),且它的所有prerequisite都符合prereq-patterns,那麼就會執行commands
例如我們可以改寫下面makefile

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objects = foo.o bar.o all.o
all: $(objects)

# These files compile via implicit rules
foo.o: foo.c
bar.o: bar.c
all.o: all.c

all.c:
echo "int main() { return 0; }" > all.c

%.c:
touch $@

clean:
rm -f *.c *.o all

改寫後如下,可以看到,我們把foo.o bar.o all.o的規則都合併成一個規則$(objects): %.o: %.c。首先foo.o符合%.o,且它的所有prerequisite都符合%.c,因此會執行%.o: %.c的規則。

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objects = foo.o bar.o all.o
all: $(objects)

# These files compile via implicit rules
# Syntax - targets ...: target-pattern: prereq-patterns ...
# In the case of the first target, foo.o, the target-pattern matches foo.o and sets the "stem" to be "foo".
# It then replaces the '%' in prereq-patterns with that stem
$(objects): %.o: %.c

all.c:
echo "int main() { return 0; }" > all.c

%.c:
touch $@

clean:
rm -f *.c *.o all

Static Pattern Rules and Filter

此外,我們可以使用filter函式來過濾掉不需要的檔案,後面會再講到函式這裡只是先展示如何跟函式搭配使用,在下面的範例我們使用了 .raw 和 .result 這兩個擴展名。

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obj_files = foo.result bar.o lose.o
src_files = foo.raw bar.c lose.c

all: $(obj_files)
# Note: PHONY is important here. Without it, implicit rules will try to build the executable "all", since the prereqs are ".o" files.
.PHONY: all

# Ex 1: .o files depend on .c files. Though we don't actually make the .o file.
$(filter %.o,$(obj_files)): %.o: %.c
@echo "target: $@ prereq: $<"

# Ex 2: .result files depend on .raw files. Though we don't actually make the .result file.
$(filter %.result,$(obj_files)): %.result: %.raw
@echo "target: $@ prereq: $<"

%.c %.raw:
@echo "touch $@ prereq: $<"
touch $@

clean:
rm -f $(src_files)

執行的結果如下,首先執行第一條規則all: $(obj_files)產生第一個target foo.result,並由$(filter %.result,$(obj_files)): %.result: %.raw產生foo.resultfoo.result的prerequisitfoo.raw%.c %.raw:產生。
可以看到,我們把foo.result bar.o lose.o的規則都合併成一個規則$(filter %.result,$(obj_files)): %.result: %.raw。首先foo.result符合%.result,且它的所有prerequisite都符合%.raw,因此會執行%.result: %.raw的規則。

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touch foo.raw
target: foo.result prereq: foo.raw
touch bar.c
target: bar.o prereq: bar.c
touch lose.c
target: lose.o prereq: lose.c

Pattern Rules

我們可以將Pattern Rules視為兩種用法。

  • 自定義的implicit rules

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    # 自訂一個 pattern rule 將每一個.c檔編譯成.o檔
    %.o : %.c
    $(CC) -c $(CFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS) $< -o $@
  • 簡化版的static pattern rules

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    # 定義一個沒有 prerequisites 的 pattern rule
    # 他將會在需要的時候產出一個空白的.c檔
    %.c:
    touch $@

    在這裡%代表任意非空白的字串。

Double-Colon Rules

Double-Colon Rules 很少被用到,他允許對同一個target定義多個規則,且這些規則可以是不同的commands。如以下範例

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all: blah

blah::
@echo "hello"

blah::
@echo "hello again"

他的輸出是

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hello
hello again

Commands and execution

指令回顯/禁用

在預設情況下,make會回顯每一個command,如果你不想要回顯,可以在command前面加上@,如下

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all: 
@echo "This make line will not be printed"
echo "But this will"

命令執行

每一行命令都會在一個新的shell中執行,因此如果你想要在同一個shell中執行,可以使用分號;來連接命令,如下

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all: 
cd ..
# The cd above does not affect this line, because each command is effectively run in a new shell
echo `pwd`

# This cd command affects the next because they are on the same line
cd ..;echo `pwd`

# Same as above
cd ..; \
echo `pwd`

預設shell

預設情況下,make會使用/bin/sh來執行命令,如果你想要使用其他的shell,可以使用.SHELL來指定,如下

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SHELL=/bin/bash

cool:
echo "Hello from bash"

$$符號

在Makefile中,$$代表一個$符號,如此一來,我們就可以在Makefile中使用bash或是sh的shell variable。在下面這個例子中特別注一一下 Makefile variables 和 Shell variables

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make_var = I am a make variable
all:
# Same as running "sh_var='I am a shell variable'; echo $sh_var" in the shell
sh_var='I am a shell variable'; echo $$sh_var

# Same as running "echo I am a make variable" in the shell
echo $(make_var)

-k-i-進行錯誤處理

執行make的時候使用-k參數可以讓make繼續執行,即使其中一個target失敗了。執行make的時候使用-i參數可以讓make忽略所有的錯誤。

在command前面加上-可以讓make忽略該command的錯誤,如下

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one:
# This error will be printed but ignored, and make will continue to run
-false
touch one

打斷或是結束make

ctrl + c可以打斷或是結束make,他將會刪掉剛生成的target

遞迴使用 make

為了遞迴調用 Makefile,使用特殊的 $(MAKE) 代替 make,因為它將為您傳遞 make 標誌,並且不會受到這些標誌的影響。

當使用 $(MAKE) 來遞迴調用 Makefile 時,它將傳遞先前用於調用 make 的所有標誌和選項,以及在 Makefile 中定義的任何其他變量。這有助於確保在整個項目中使用相同的編譯選項和變量。同時,$(MAKE) 不會受到當前 make 的影響,這可以避免不必要的錯誤和不一致性。

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new_contents = "hello:\n\ttouch inside_file"
all:
mkdir -p subdir
printf $(new_contents) | sed -e 's/^ //' > subdir/makefile
cd subdir && $(MAKE)

clean:
rm -rf subdir

Export, environments, and recursive make

當make執行的時候,他會先把所有環境變數轉換成make的變數,例如下面範例假如我們先在shell設定環境變數shell_env_var

  1. 設定環境並且執行make
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    export shell_env_var='I am an environment variable'; make
  2. 執行下面的makefile
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    all:
    # Print out the Shell variable
    echo $$shell_env_var

    # Print out the Make variable
    echo $(shell_env_var)
  • make的export指令可以把make的變數直接轉換成環境變數
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    shell_env_var=Shell env var, created inside of Make
    export shell_env_var
    all:
    echo $(shell_env_var)
    echo $$shell_env_var

如此一來當我們在make command呼叫make的時候,就可以利用export指令將變數傳遞給子make程式。下面範例中cooly變數會被傳遞到子資料夾內所執行的make的makefile裡面。這裡可以注意到,cooly變數在all target之前被定義,但是他還是可以被all target使用。

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new_contents = "hello:\n\techo \$$(cooly)"

all:
mkdir -p subdir
printf $(new_contents) | sed -e 's/^ //' > subdir/makefile
@echo "---MAKEFILE CONTENTS---"
@cd subdir && cat makefile
@echo "---END MAKEFILE CONTENTS---"
cd subdir && $(MAKE)

# Note that variables and exports. They are set/affected globally.
cooly = "The subdirectory can see me!"
export cooly
# This would nullify the line above: unexport cooly

clean:
rm -rf subdir
  • .EXPORT_ALL_VARIABLES
    .EXPORT_ALL_VARIABLES可以直接把所有的make變數都轉換成環境變數
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    .EXPORT_ALL_VARIABLES:
    new_contents = "hello:\n\techo \$$(cooly)"

    cooly = "The subdirectory can see me!"
    # This would nullify the line above: unexport cooly

    all:
    mkdir -p subdir
    printf $(new_contents) | sed -e 's/^ //' > subdir/makefile
    @echo "---MAKEFILE CONTENTS---"
    @cd subdir && cat makefile
    @echo "---END MAKEFILE CONTENTS---"
    cd subdir && $(MAKE)

    clean:
    rm -rf subdir

make的命令列選項

這裡有make的命令列選項,可以注意--dry-run, --touch, --old-file這幾個。
另外make可以一次接受多個target,例如make clean run test就會先執行clean,接著run和test。

變數part2

兩種賦值方法

  • 延遲賦值(lazy evaluation)=:

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    VAR = foo
    VAR2 = $(VAR)
    VAR = bar

    all:
    # 在此處 VAR2 的值將是 "bar",因為VAR2直到被真正使用展開
    echo $(VAR2)

    ?=這個符號可以為沒被設定過的店數設定值

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    one = hello
    one ?= will not be set #one被設定過了,所以沒作用
    two ?= will be set #two還沒被設定做,將設定值

    all:
    echo $(one)
    echo $(two)

    輸出如下

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    echo hello
    hello
    echo will be set
    will be set
  • 立即賦值(immediate assignment):=:

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    VAR := foo
    VAR2 := $(VAR)
    VAR := bar

    all:
    # 在此處 VAR2 的值將是 "foo",因為VAR2在:=的時候就展開了
    echo $(VAR2)

    因此:=可以append variable,如果是=就會齣戲無窮迴圈錯誤

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    one = hello
    # 這段程式可以運行
    # one gets defined as a simply expanded variable (:=) and thus can handle appending
    one := ${one} there

    all:
    echo $(one)

    下面這段程式會出現無窮迴圈錯誤。

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    one = hello
    # 注意這裡用的是 = ,會造成無窮迴圈錯誤
    one = ${one} there

    all:
    echo $(one)

空白

一行字起頭的空白會被make忽略掉,但是尾巴空白的不會,要在起頭加空白可以用$(nullstring),更精確地說其實未定義的變數都是empty string

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with_spaces =   hello   # with_spaces has many spaces after "hello"
after = $(with_spaces)there

start_space = $(nullstring) hello

all:
echo "$(after)"
echo "$(start_space)"
echo $(nowhere) #這也會輸出empty string

append

+=可以用來append variable

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foo := start
foo += more

all:
echo $(foo)

覆寫make命列列參數

override可以用來覆寫make命令列參數,例如下面這個例子,分別用make option_one=himake option_two=hi去執行,可以發現只有option_one會被覆寫

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# Overrides command line arguments
override option_one = did_override
# Does not override command line arguments
option_two = not_override
all:
echo $(option_one)
echo $(option_two)

針對target設定變數

變數可以只設定給指定的target,例如下面例子,one只定義給all target

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all: one = cool

all:
echo one is defined: $(one)

other:
echo one is nothing: $(one)

Pattern-specific variables

變數也可以指定義給特定的target patterns,例如下面例子,只有符合%.cpattern的target會被定義one

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%.c: one = cool

blah.c:
echo one is defined: $(one)

other:
echo one is nothing: $(one)

Makefile判斷式

if/else

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foo = ok

all:
ifeq ($(foo), ok)
echo "foo equals ok"
else
echo "nope"
endif

檢查變數是否為空

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nullstring =
foo = $(nullstring) # end of line; there is a space here

all:
ifeq ($(strip $(foo)),)
echo "foo is empty after being stripped"
endif
ifeq ($(nullstring),)
echo "nullstring doesn't even have spaces"
endif

檢查變數是否被定義

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bar =
foo = $(bar)

all:
ifdef foo
echo "foo is defined"
endif
ifndef bar
echo "but bar is not"
endif

$(MAKEFLAGS)

下面範例展示如何使用 findstringMAKEFLAGS 測試 make flag。分別用make指令和make -i指令執行下面makefile

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all:
# Search for the "-i" flag. MAKEFLAGS is just a list of single characters, one per flag. So look for "i" in this case.
ifneq (,$(findstring i, $(MAKEFLAGS)))
echo "i was passed to MAKEFLAGS"
endif

Functions

First Functions

函式主要用來處理文字。呼叫函式的方法有$(fn, arguments)${fn, arguments},而make也內建許多函式。例如subst替換掉文字。

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bar := ${subst not, totally, "I am not superman"}
all:
@echo $(bar)

而如果你相替換掉空白或是逗號,可以利用變數。

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comma := ,
empty:=
space := $(empty) $(empty)
foo := a b c
bar := $(subst $(space),$(comma),$(foo))

all:
@echo $(bar)

特別注意到不要在逗號和下一個參數之間留空白,因為它會被視為文字。

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comma := ,
empty:=
space := $(empty) $(empty)
foo := a b c
bar := $(subst $(space), $(comma) , $(foo))

all:
# Output is ", a , b , c". Notice the spaces introduced
@echo $(bar)

字串替換

函式$(patsubst pattern,replacement,text)的功能如下。

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foo := a.o b.o l.a c.o
one := $(patsubst %.o,%.c,$(foo))
# This is a shorthand for the above
two := $(foo:%.o=%.c)
# This is the suffix-only shorthand, and is also equivalent to the above.
three := $(foo:.o=.c)

all:
echo $(one)
echo $(two)
echo $(three)

The foreach function

foreach函式的用法為$(foreach var,list,text),foreach會把以空白間區隔文字的list一個一個賦值給var,而text會累加前面的結果,範例如下

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foo := who are you
# For each "word" in foo, output that same word with an exclamation after
bar := $(foreach wrd,$(foo),$(wrd)!)

all:
# Output is "who! are! you!"
@echo $(bar)

if function

用法如下

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foo := $(if this-is-not-empty,then!,else!)
empty :=
bar := $(if $(empty),then!,else!)

all:
@echo $(foo)
@echo $(bar)

The call function

make可以用call來呼叫自定義函式

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sweet_new_fn = Variable Name: $(0) First: $(1) Second: $(2) Empty Variable: $(3)

all:
# Outputs "Variable Name: sweet_new_fn First: go Second: tigers Empty Variable:"
@echo $(call sweet_new_fn, go, tigers)

The shell function

make也可以呼叫shell函式,但是會把輸出的換行符號改成空白鍵

其他功能

Include Makefiles

使用Include可以讓makefile裡面呼叫其他makefile

vpath 指令

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vpath %.h ../headers ../other-directory

# Note: vpath allows blah.h to be found even though blah.h is never in the current directory
some_binary: ../headers blah.h
touch some_binary

../headers:
mkdir ../headers

# We call the target blah.h instead of ../headers/blah.h, because that's the prereq that some_binary is looking for
# Typically, blah.h would already exist and you wouldn't need this.
blah.h:
touch ../headers/blah.h

clean:
rm -rf ../headers
rm -f some_binary

換行

指令太長可以利用\換行

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some_file: 
echo This line is too long, so \
it is broken up into multiple lines

.phony

在目標中添加”.PHONY”將防止Make將虛擬目標與文件名混淆。在這個例子中,如果創建了名為”clean”的文件,”make clean”仍然會運行。從技術上講,我應該在每個帶有”all”或”clean”的例子中都使用它,但為了保持例子的清晰,我沒有這樣做。此外,”phony”目標通常具有很少用作文件名的名稱,在實踐中許多人都會跳過這一步。

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some_file:
touch some_file
touch clean

.PHONY: clean
clean:
rm -f some_file
rm -f clean

.delete_on_error

如果命令返回非零的退出狀態,make工具將停止運行規則(並將向前傳播到前置要求)。
DELETE_ON_ERROR將在規則以這種方式失敗時刪除該規則的目標。這將對所有目標發生,不僅僅是像PHONY這樣的目標。儘管由於歷史原因,make工具沒有使用這個選項,但始終使用它是一個好主意。

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.DELETE_ON_ERROR:
all: one two

one:
touch one
false

two:
touch two
false

deepstream教學

客製化模型實作nvinfer介面

nvinfer呼叫介面

任何客製化介面最終必須被編譯成一個獨立的shared library。nvinfer在執行期間利用dlopen()呼叫函式庫,並且利用dlsym()呼叫函式庫中的函式。進一步的資訊紀錄在nvdsinfer_custom_impl.h裡面https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/sdk-api/nvdsinfer__custom__impl_8h.html

客製化Output Parsing

  • 對於detectors使用者必須自行解析模型的輸出並且將之轉化成bounding box 座標和物件類別。對於classifiers則是必須自行解析出物件屬性。範例在/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/libs/nvdsinfer_customparser,裡面的README有關於使用custom parser的說明。

  • 客製化parsing function必須為NvDsInferParseCustomFunc型態。在nvdsinfer_custom_impl.h的221行可以看到下面的型態定義,代表每一個客製化的解析函式都必須符合這個格式

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    /**
    * Type definition for the custom bounding box parsing function.
    *
    * @param[in] outputLayersInfo A vector containing information on the output
    * layers of the model.
    * @param[in] networkInfo Network information.
    * @param[in] detectionParams Detection parameters required for parsing
    * objects.
    * @param[out] objectList A reference to a vector in which the function
    * is to add parsed objects.
    */
    typedef bool (* NvDsInferParseCustomFunc) (
    std::vector<NvDsInferLayerInfo> const &outputLayersInfo,
    NvDsInferNetworkInfo const &networkInfo,
    NvDsInferParseDetectionParams const &detectionParams,
    std::vector<NvDsInferObjectDetectionInfo> &objectList);
  • 客製化parsing function可以在Gst-nvinfer的參數檔parse-bbox-func-namecustom-lib-name屬性指定。例如我們定義了Yolov2-tiny的客製化bounding box解析函式NvDsInferParseCustomYoloV2Tiny,編譯出來的shared library位於nvdsinfer_custom_impl_Yolo/libnvdsinfer_custom_impl_Yolo.so,我們在設定檔就就必須要有以下設定

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    parse-bbox-func-name=NvDsInferParseCustomYoloV2Tiny
    custom-lib-path=nvdsinfer_custom_impl_Yolo/libnvdsinfer_custom_impl_Yolo.so

可以藉由在定義函式後呼叫CHECK_CUSTOM_PARSE_FUNC_PROTOTYPE()marco來驗證函式的定義。
使用範例如下

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extern "C" bool NvDsInferParseCustomYoloV2Tiny(
std::vector<NvDsInferLayerInfo> const& outputLayersInfo,
NvDsInferNetworkInfo const& networkInfo,
NvDsInferParseDetectionParams const& detectionParams,
std::vector<NvDsInferParseObjectInfo>& objectList)
{
...
}
CHECK_CUSTOM_PARSE_FUNC_PROTOTYPE(NvDsInferParseCustomYoloV2Tiny);

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/deepstreamsdk-4-0-1-custom-yolov3-tiny-error/108391?u=jenhao

IPlugin Implementation

對於TensorRT不支援的network layer,Deepstream提供IPlugin interface來客製化處理。在/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources底下的objectDetector_SSD, objectDetector_FasterRCNN, 和 objectDetector_YoloV3資料夾展示了如何使用custom layers。

objectDetector_YoloV3範例中我們可以看到如何製作Tensorrt不支援的Yolov3的yolo layer。可以在yolo.cpp中看到自定義的layer是如何被呼叫使用的,程式節錄如下。

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....
else if (m_ConfigBlocks.at(i).at("type") == "yolo") {
nvinfer1::Dims prevTensorDims = previous->getDimensions();
assert(prevTensorDims.d[1] == prevTensorDims.d[2]);
TensorInfo& curYoloTensor = m_OutputTensors.at(outputTensorCount);
curYoloTensor.gridSize = prevTensorDims.d[1];
curYoloTensor.stride = m_InputW / curYoloTensor.gridSize;
m_OutputTensors.at(outputTensorCount).volume = curYoloTensor.gridSize
* curYoloTensor.gridSize
* (curYoloTensor.numBBoxes * (5 + curYoloTensor.numClasses));
std::string layerName = "yolo_" + std::to_string(i);
curYoloTensor.blobName = layerName;
nvinfer1::IPluginV2* yoloPlugin
= new YoloLayerV3(m_OutputTensors.at(outputTensorCount).numBBoxes,
m_OutputTensors.at(outputTensorCount).numClasses,
m_OutputTensors.at(outputTensorCount).gridSize);
assert(yoloPlugin != nullptr);
nvinfer1::IPluginV2Layer* yolo =
network.addPluginV2(&previous, 1, *yoloPlugin);
assert(yolo != nullptr);
yolo->setName(layerName.c_str());
std::string inputVol = dimsToString(previous->getDimensions());
previous = yolo->getOutput(0);
assert(previous != nullptr);
previous->setName(layerName.c_str());
std::string outputVol = dimsToString(previous->getDimensions());
network.markOutput(*previous);
channels = getNumChannels(previous);
tensorOutputs.push_back(yolo->getOutput(0));
printLayerInfo(layerIndex, "yolo", inputVol, outputVol, std::to_string(weightPtr));
++outputTensorCount;
}
...

而其他版本的YOLO,Nvidia也已經幫我們建立好許多Plugin,例如yolov2的region layer,Nvidia已經幫我們建立,其他已經建立好的layer可以在這裡找到。
https://github.com/NVIDIA/TensorRT/tree/1c0e3fdd039c92e584430a2ed91b4e2612e375b8/plugin

畫出範例的結構圖

首先在~/.bashrc加入下面這行設定pipeline圖儲存的位置,注意GStreamer不會幫你建立資料夾,你必須確認資料夾存在

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export GST_DEBUG_DUMP_DOT_DIR=/tmp

接下來在pipeline 狀態設為PLAYING之前加入下面這行程式

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GST_DEBUG_BIN_TO_DOT_FILE(pipeline, GST_DEBUG_GRAPH_SHOW_ALL, "dstest1-pipeline");

最後執行程式後就會產生.dot在前面設定的資料夾,你可以下載Graphviz,或是用VScode的插件來看圖

Deepstream 說明書

https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/dev-guide/text/DS_plugin_gst-nvdsxfer.html

gst-launch-1.0建立rtsp輸入源的pipeline

首先先用gst-launch-1.0建立一個簡單的rtsp輸入、螢幕輸出的pipeline

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gst-launch-1.0 rtspsrc location='rtsp://192.168.1.10:554/user=admin_password=xxxxxx_channel=1_stream=0.sdp' ! rtph264depay ! h264parse ! nvv4l2decoder ! nvvideoconvert ! video/x-raw,format=BGRx ! videoconvert ! video/x-raw,format=BGR ! autovideosink

將python的範例程式轉成c++

https://github.com/NVIDIA-AI-IOT/deepstream_python_apps/tree/master/apps/deepstream-rtsp-in-rtsp-out

建立mjpeg串流

  1. 指令方式
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    gst-launch-1.0 -v rtspsrc location="rtsp://<rtsp url>/live1.sdp" \
    ! rtph264depay ! avdec_h264 \
    ! timeoverlay halignment=right valignment=bottom \
    ! videorate ! video/x-raw,framerate=37000/1001 ! jpegenc ! multifilesink location="snapshot.jpeg"
    https://stackoverflow.com/questions/59885450/jpeg-live-stream-in-html-slow

查詢deepstream bin的說明

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gst-inspect-1.0 nvurisrcbin

gst-launch-1.0輸出除錯訊息到檔案

參考:
https://www.cnblogs.com/xleng/p/12228720.html

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GST_DEBUG_NO_COLOR=1 GST_DEBUG_FILE=pipeline.log GST_DEBUG=5 gst-launch-1.0 -v rtspsrc location="rtsp://192.168.8.19/live.sdp" user-id="root" user-pw="3edc\$RFV" ! rtph264depay ! avdec_h264 ! timeoverlay halignment=right valignment=bottom ! videorate ! video/x-raw,framerate=37000/1001 ! jpegenc ! multifilesink location="snapshot.jpeg"

參考:
https://gstreamer.freedesktop.org/documentation/tutorials/basic/debugging-tools.html?gi-language=c
https://embeddedartistry.com/blog/2018/02/22/generating-gstreamer-pipeline-graphs/

本地端觀看udp傳送影像

host設為本機ip或127.0.0.1

send:

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gst-launch-1.0 -v videotestsrc ! x264enc tune=zerolatency bitrate=500 speed-preset=superfast ! rtph264pay ! udpsink port=5000 host=$HOST

receive:

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gst-launch-1.0 -v udpsrc port=5000 ! "application/x-rtp, media=(string)video, clock-rate=(int)90000, encoding-name=(string)H264, payload=(int)96" ! rtph264depay ! h264parse ! avdec_h264 ! videoconvert ! autovideosink

Glibs說明書

http://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/SoftwareDocs/gtk20/glib/glib-hash-tables.html#g-int-hash

GDB文字圖形介面

https://blog.louie.lu/2016/09/12/gdb-%E9%8C%A6%E5%9B%8A%E5%A6%99%E8%A8%88/

範例

https://gist.github.com/liviaerxin/bb34725037fd04afa76ef9252c2ee875#tips-for-debug

rtsp 元件nvrtspoutsinkbin

nvrtspoutsinkbin沒有說明書,只能用gst-inspect-1.0看
https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/where-can-fine-nvrtspoutsinkbin-info/199124

範例
/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/apps/sample_apps/deepstream_reference_apps/deepstream-bodypose-3d/sources/deepstream_pose_estimation_app.cpp

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/* Create RTSP output bin */
rtsp_out_bin = gst_element_factory_make ("nvrtspoutsinkbin", "nvrtsp-renderer");

if (!rtsp_out_bin) {
g_printerr ("Failed to create RTSP output elements. Exiting.\n");
return -1;
}

g_object_set (G_OBJECT (rtsp_out_bin), "sync", TRUE, NULL);
g_object_set (G_OBJECT (rtsp_out_bin), "bitrate", 768000, NULL);
g_object_set (G_OBJECT (rtsp_out_bin), "rtsp-port", rtsp_port_num, NULL);
g_object_set (G_OBJECT (rtsp_out_bin), "enc-type", enc_type, NULL);

gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), rtsp_out_bin, NULL);

取得source id

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/how-to-get-sources-index-in-deepstream/244461

可以用prob取得meta data
deepstream_test3_app.c 有範例

probe使用範例

metadata

切換輸入源

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/how-switch-camera-output-gst-nvmultistreamtiler/233062

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tiler_sink_pad.add_probe(Gst.PadProbeType.BUFFER, tiler_sink_pad_buffer_probe, 0)

tiler.set_property("show-source", <stream_id>) `

/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/apps/apps-common/src/deepstream-yaml/deepstream_source_yaml.cpp有範例

斷線重連

rust的插件(可能可以編譯成c函式庫)
https://coaxion.net/blog/2020/07/automatic-retry-on-error-and-fallback-stream-handling-for-gstreamer-sources/

https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/gstreamer/gst-plugins-rs/-/tree/master/utils/fallbackswitch

編譯rust插件
https://www.collabora.com/news-and-blog/blog/2020/06/23/cross-building-rust-gstreamer-plugins-for-the-raspberry-pi/

RUST說明書
https://rust-lang.tw/book-tw/ch01-03-hello-cargo.html

截出有物件的圖

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/saving-frame-with-detected-object-jetson-nano-ds4-0-2/121797/3

關閉Ubuntu圖形介面

https://linuxconfig.org/how-to-disable-enable-gui-on-boot-in-ubuntu-20-04-focal-fossa-linux-desktop

關閉使用gpu的資源

https://heary.cn/posts/Linux环境下重装NVIDIA驱动报错kernel-module-nvidia-modeset-in-use问题分析/

發現nvidia smi persistence mode會占用GPU資源,必須釋放掉才能安裝新的driver
可以用nvidia-smi的指令關掉https://docs.nvidia.com/deploy/driver-persistence/index.html#usage

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nvidia-smi -pm 0

移除舊的driver

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apt-get autoremove

queue的用途

https://docs.xilinx.com/r/en-US/ug1449-multimedia/Performance-Improvement-from-the-GStreamer-Perspective

probe

https://coaxion.net/blog/2014/01/gstreamer-dynamic-pipelines/

https://erit-lvx.medium.com/probes-handling-in-gstreamer-pipelines-3f96ea367f31

deepstream-test4 用prob取得metadata的範例

NvDsBatchMeta資料圖:
https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/dev-guide/text/DS_plugin_metadata.html

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static GstPadProbeReturn
osd_sink_pad_buffer_probe (GstPad * pad, GstPadProbeInfo * info,
gpointer u_data)
{
GstBuffer *buf = (GstBuffer *) info->data;
NvDsFrameMeta *frame_meta = NULL;
NvOSD_TextParams *txt_params = NULL;
guint vehicle_count = 0;
guint person_count = 0;
gboolean is_first_object = TRUE;
NvDsMetaList *l_frame, *l_obj;

NvDsBatchMeta *batch_meta = gst_buffer_get_nvds_batch_meta (buf);
if (!batch_meta) {
// No batch meta attached.
return GST_PAD_PROBE_OK;
}

//batch_meta : NvDsBatchMeta https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/sdk-api/struct__NvDsBatchMeta.html
//
//l_frame : NvDsFrameMetaList, 本質是GList http://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/SoftwareDocs/gtk20/glib/glib-doubly-linked-lists.html#GList
// struct GList
// {
// gpointer data;
// GList *next;
// GList *prev;
// };

for (l_frame = batch_meta->frame_meta_list; l_frame; l_frame = l_frame->next) {
frame_meta = (NvDsFrameMeta *) l_frame->data;

if (frame_meta == NULL) {
// Ignore Null frame meta.
continue;
}

is_first_object = TRUE;

// frame_meta : NvDsFrameMeta https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/sdk-api/struct__NvDsFrameMeta.html
// l_obj : NvDsObjectMetaList * 本質是GList
// obj_meta : NvDsObjectMeta
for (l_obj = frame_meta->obj_meta_list; l_obj; l_obj = l_obj->next) {
NvDsObjectMeta *obj_meta = (NvDsObjectMeta *) l_obj->data;

if (obj_meta == NULL) {
// Ignore Null object.
continue;
}

// obj_meta : NvDsObjectMeta
// text_params : NvOSD_TextParams 描述物件的文字
// line233 - 241應該是清掉原本的文字然後放入字定義的class名稱
txt_params = &(obj_meta->text_params);
if (txt_params->display_text)
g_free (txt_params->display_text);

txt_params->display_text = g_malloc0 (MAX_DISPLAY_LEN);

g_snprintf (txt_params->display_text, MAX_DISPLAY_LEN, "%s ",
pgie_classes_str[obj_meta->class_id]);

if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_VEHICLE)
vehicle_count++;
if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_PERSON)
person_count++;

/* Now set the offsets where the string should appear */
txt_params->x_offset = obj_meta->rect_params.left;
txt_params->y_offset = obj_meta->rect_params.top - 25;

/* Font , font-color and font-size */
txt_params->font_params.font_name = "Serif";
txt_params->font_params.font_size = 10;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.red = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.green = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.blue = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.alpha = 1.0;

/* Text background color */
txt_params->set_bg_clr = 1;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.red = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.green = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.blue = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.alpha = 1.0;

/*
* Ideally NVDS_EVENT_MSG_META should be attached to buffer by the
* component implementing detection / recognition logic.
* Here it demonstrates how to use / attach that meta data.
*/
if (is_first_object && !(frame_number % frame_interval)) {
/* Frequency of messages to be send will be based on use case.
* Here message is being sent for first object every frame_interval(default=30).
*/

NvDsEventMsgMeta *msg_meta =
(NvDsEventMsgMeta *) g_malloc0 (sizeof (NvDsEventMsgMeta));
msg_meta->bbox.top = obj_meta->rect_params.top;
msg_meta->bbox.left = obj_meta->rect_params.left;
msg_meta->bbox.width = obj_meta->rect_params.width;
msg_meta->bbox.height = obj_meta->rect_params.height;
msg_meta->frameId = frame_number;
msg_meta->trackingId = obj_meta->object_id;
msg_meta->confidence = obj_meta->confidence;
generate_event_msg_meta (msg_meta, obj_meta->class_id, obj_meta);

// 要增加自訂的meta data必須要先用 nvds_acquire_user_meta_from_pool (batch_meta);取得
// https://docs.nvidia.com/metropolis/deepstream/dev-guide/text/DS_plugin_metadata.html#user-custom-metadata-addition-inside-nvdsbatchmeta

NvDsUserMeta *user_event_meta =
nvds_acquire_user_meta_from_pool (batch_meta);
if (user_event_meta) {
user_event_meta->user_meta_data = (void *) msg_meta;
user_event_meta->base_meta.meta_type = NVDS_EVENT_MSG_META;
user_event_meta->base_meta.copy_func =
(NvDsMetaCopyFunc) meta_copy_func;
user_event_meta->base_meta.release_func =
(NvDsMetaReleaseFunc) meta_free_func;
nvds_add_user_meta_to_frame (frame_meta, user_event_meta);
} else {
g_print ("Error in attaching event meta to buffer\n");
}
is_first_object = FALSE;
}
}
}
g_print ("Frame Number = %d "
"Vehicle Count = %d Person Count = %d\n",
frame_number, vehicle_count, person_count);
frame_number++;

return GST_PAD_PROBE_OK;
}

NvDsObjEncUsrArgs參數的功用

  • bool isFrame : 告訴encoder要編碼整張照片還是編碼每一個偵測物件的截圖。
    • 1: Encodes the entire frame.
    • 0: Encodes object of specified resolution.
  • bool saveImg : 會直接儲存一張照片到當前資料夾
  • bool attachUsrMeta :
    • 決定是否加上NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META metadata

Deepstream截圖,以deepstream_image_meta_test為例

注意:

根據文件nvds_obj_enc_process是一個非阻塞的函式,使用者必須呼叫nvds_obj_enc_finish()以確保所有的圖片都已經確實被處理完成。

第一步,設定要儲存照片的條件並且encode成jpg檔

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/* pgie_src_pad_buffer_probe will extract metadata received on pgie src pad
* and update params for drawing rectangle, object information etc. We also
* iterate through the object list and encode the cropped objects as jpeg
* images and attach it as user meta to the respective objects.*/
static GstPadProbeReturn
pgie_src_pad_buffer_probe (GstPad * pad, GstPadProbeInfo * info, gpointer ctx)
{
GstBuffer *buf = (GstBuffer *) info->data;
GstMapInfo inmap = GST_MAP_INFO_INIT;
if (!gst_buffer_map (buf, &inmap, GST_MAP_READ)) {
GST_ERROR ("input buffer mapinfo failed");
return GST_PAD_PROBE_DROP;
}
NvBufSurface *ip_surf = (NvBufSurface *) inmap.data;
gst_buffer_unmap (buf, &inmap);

NvDsObjectMeta *obj_meta = NULL;
guint vehicle_count = 0;
guint person_count = 0;
NvDsMetaList *l_frame = NULL;
NvDsMetaList *l_obj = NULL;
NvDsBatchMeta *batch_meta = gst_buffer_get_nvds_batch_meta (buf);
for (l_frame = batch_meta->frame_meta_list; l_frame != NULL;
l_frame = l_frame->next) {
NvDsFrameMeta *frame_meta = (NvDsFrameMeta *) (l_frame->data);
/* For demonstration purposes, we will encode the first 10 frames. */
if(frame_count <= 10) {
NvDsObjEncUsrArgs frameData = { 0 };
/* Preset */
frameData.isFrame = 1;
/* To be set by user */
frameData.saveImg = save_img;
frameData.attachUsrMeta = attach_user_meta;
/* Set if Image scaling Required */
frameData.scaleImg = FALSE;
frameData.scaledWidth = 0;
frameData.scaledHeight = 0;
/* Quality */
frameData.quality = 80;
/* Main Function Call */
nvds_obj_enc_process (ctx, &frameData, ip_surf, NULL, frame_meta);
}
guint num_rects = 0;
for (l_obj = frame_meta->obj_meta_list; l_obj != NULL; l_obj = l_obj->next) {
obj_meta = (NvDsObjectMeta *) (l_obj->data);
if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_VEHICLE) {
vehicle_count++;
num_rects++;
}
if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_PERSON) {
person_count++;
num_rects++;
}
/* Conditions that user needs to set to encode the detected objects of
* interest. Here, by default all the detected objects are encoded.
* For demonstration, we will encode the first object in the frame. */
if ((obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_PERSON
|| obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_VEHICLE)
&& num_rects == 1) {
NvDsObjEncUsrArgs objData = { 0 };
/* To be set by user */
objData.saveImg = save_img;
objData.attachUsrMeta = attach_user_meta;
/* Set if Image scaling Required */
objData.scaleImg = FALSE;
objData.scaledWidth = 0;
objData.scaledHeight = 0;
/* Preset */
objData.objNum = num_rects;
/* Quality */
objData.quality = 80;
/*Main Function Call */
nvds_obj_enc_process (ctx, &objData, ip_surf, obj_meta, frame_meta);
}
}
}
nvds_obj_enc_finish (ctx);
frame_count++;
return GST_PAD_PROBE_OK;
}

第二步,檢查usrMetaData是否的meta_type是不是NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META

如果發現是NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META,就儲存照片

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/* osd_sink_pad_buffer_probe will extract metadata received on OSD sink pad
* and update params for drawing rectangle, object information. We also iterate
* through the user meta of type "NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META" to find image crop meta
* and demonstrate how to access it.*/
static GstPadProbeReturn
osd_sink_pad_buffer_probe (GstPad * pad, GstPadProbeInfo * info,
gpointer u_data)
{
GstBuffer *buf = (GstBuffer *) info->data;

guint num_rects = 0;
NvDsObjectMeta *obj_meta = NULL;
guint vehicle_count = 0;
guint person_count = 0;
NvDsMetaList *l_frame = NULL;
NvDsMetaList *l_obj = NULL;
NvDsDisplayMeta *display_meta = NULL;
NvDsBatchMeta *batch_meta = gst_buffer_get_nvds_batch_meta (buf);
g_print ("Running osd_sink_pad_buffer_probe...\n");
for (l_frame = batch_meta->frame_meta_list; l_frame != NULL;
l_frame = l_frame->next) {
NvDsFrameMeta *frame_meta = (NvDsFrameMeta *) (l_frame->data);
int offset = 0;
/* To verify encoded metadata of cropped frames, we iterate through the
* user metadata of each frame and if a metadata of the type
* 'NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META' is found then we write that to a file as
* implemented below.
*/
char fileFrameNameString[FILE_NAME_SIZE];
const char *osd_string = "OSD";

/* For Demonstration Purposes we are writing metadata to jpeg images of
* the first 10 frames only.
* The files generated have an 'OSD' prefix. */
if (frame_number < 11) {
NvDsUserMetaList *usrMetaList = frame_meta->frame_user_meta_list;
FILE *file;
int stream_num = 0;
while (usrMetaList != NULL) {
NvDsUserMeta *usrMetaData = (NvDsUserMeta *) usrMetaList->data;
if (usrMetaData->base_meta.meta_type == NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META) {
snprintf (fileFrameNameString, FILE_NAME_SIZE, "%s_frame_%d_%d.jpg",
osd_string, frame_number, stream_num++);
NvDsObjEncOutParams *enc_jpeg_image =
(NvDsObjEncOutParams *) usrMetaData->user_meta_data;
/* Write to File */
file = fopen (fileFrameNameString, "wb");
fwrite (enc_jpeg_image->outBuffer, sizeof (uint8_t),
enc_jpeg_image->outLen, file);
fclose (file);
}
usrMetaList = usrMetaList->next;
}
}
for (l_obj = frame_meta->obj_meta_list; l_obj != NULL; l_obj = l_obj->next) {
obj_meta = (NvDsObjectMeta *) (l_obj->data);
if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_VEHICLE) {
vehicle_count++;
num_rects++;
}
if (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_PERSON) {
person_count++;
num_rects++;
}
/* To verify encoded metadata of cropped objects, we iterate through the
* user metadata of each object and if a metadata of the type
* 'NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META' is found then we write that to a file as
* implemented below.
*/
char fileObjNameString[FILE_NAME_SIZE];

/* For Demonstration Purposes we are writing metadata to jpeg images of
* vehicles or persons for the first 100 frames only.
* The files generated have a 'OSD' prefix. */
if (frame_number < 100 && (obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_PERSON
|| obj_meta->class_id == PGIE_CLASS_ID_VEHICLE)) {
NvDsUserMetaList *usrMetaList = obj_meta->obj_user_meta_list;
FILE *file;
while (usrMetaList != NULL) {
NvDsUserMeta *usrMetaData = (NvDsUserMeta *) usrMetaList->data;
if (usrMetaData->base_meta.meta_type == NVDS_CROP_IMAGE_META) {
NvDsObjEncOutParams *enc_jpeg_image =
(NvDsObjEncOutParams *) usrMetaData->user_meta_data;

snprintf (fileObjNameString, FILE_NAME_SIZE, "%s_%d_%d_%d_%s.jpg",
osd_string, frame_number, frame_meta->batch_id, num_rects,
obj_meta->obj_label);
/* Write to File */
file = fopen (fileObjNameString, "wb");
fwrite (enc_jpeg_image->outBuffer, sizeof (uint8_t),
enc_jpeg_image->outLen, file);
fclose (file);
usrMetaList = NULL;
} else {
usrMetaList = usrMetaList->next;
}
}
}
}
display_meta = nvds_acquire_display_meta_from_pool (batch_meta);
NvOSD_TextParams *txt_params = &display_meta->text_params[0];
txt_params->display_text = g_malloc0 (MAX_DISPLAY_LEN);
offset =
snprintf (txt_params->display_text, MAX_DISPLAY_LEN, "Person = %d ",
person_count);
offset =
snprintf (txt_params->display_text + offset, MAX_DISPLAY_LEN,
"Vehicle = %d ", vehicle_count);

/* Now set the offsets where the string should appear */
txt_params->x_offset = 10;
txt_params->y_offset = 12;

/* Font , font-color and font-size */
txt_params->font_params.font_name = "Serif";
txt_params->font_params.font_size = 10;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.red = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.green = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.blue = 1.0;
txt_params->font_params.font_color.alpha = 1.0;

/* Text background color */
txt_params->set_bg_clr = 1;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.red = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.green = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.blue = 0.0;
txt_params->text_bg_clr.alpha = 1.0;

nvds_add_display_meta_to_frame (frame_meta, display_meta);
}
g_print ("Frame Number = %d Number of objects = %d "
"Vehicle Count = %d Person Count = %d\n",
frame_number, num_rects, vehicle_count, person_count);
frame_number++;
return GST_PAD_PROBE_OK;
}

加入自己客製的的metadata

參考deepstream-user-metadata-test範例的nvinfer_src_pad_buffer_probe

  1. 有四個東西需要使用者自行提供

    1. user_meta_data : pointer to User specific meta data
    2. meta_type : Metadata type that user sets to identify its metadata
    3. copy_func : Metadata copy or transform function to be provided when there is buffer transformation
    4. release_func : Metadata release function to be provided when it is no longer required.
  2. 這個範例添加一個亂數到metadata上面,以下是要達成這個目標要準備的函式

    1. user_meta_data

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      void *set_metadata_ptr()
      {
      int i = 0;
      gchar *user_metadata = (gchar*)g_malloc0(USER_ARRAY_SIZE);

      g_print("\n**************** Setting user metadata array of 16 on nvinfer src pad\n");
      for(i = 0; i < USER_ARRAY_SIZE; i++) {
      user_metadata[i] = rand() % 255;
      g_print("user_meta_data [%d] = %d\n", i, user_metadata[i]);
      }
      return (void *)user_metadata;
      }
    2. meta_type

記得要在在probe function裡面定義變數

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/** set the user metadata type */
#define NVDS_USER_FRAME_META_EXAMPLE (nvds_get_user_meta_type("NVIDIA.NVINFER.USER_META"))
NvDsMetaType user_meta_type = NVDS_USER_FRAME_META_EXAMPLE;
  1. copy_func
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/* copy function set by user. "data" holds a pointer to NvDsUserMeta*/
static gpointer copy_user_meta(gpointer data, gpointer user_data)
{
NvDsUserMeta *user_meta = (NvDsUserMeta *)data;
gchar *src_user_metadata = (gchar*)user_meta->user_meta_data;
gchar *dst_user_metadata = (gchar*)g_malloc0(USER_ARRAY_SIZE);
memcpy(dst_user_metadata, src_user_metadata, USER_ARRAY_SIZE);
return (gpointer)dst_user_metadata;
}
  1. release_func
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/* release function set by user. "data" holds a pointer to NvDsUserMeta*/
static void release_user_meta(gpointer data, gpointer user_data)
{
NvDsUserMeta *user_meta = (NvDsUserMeta *) data;
if(user_meta->user_meta_data) {
g_free(user_meta->user_meta_data);
user_meta->user_meta_data = NULL;
}
}

  1. 新增一個probe把資料放入metadata
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    /* Set nvds user metadata at frame level. User need to set 4 parameters after
    * acquring user meta from pool using nvds_acquire_user_meta_from_pool().
    *
    * Below parameters are required to be set.
    * 1. user_meta_data : pointer to User specific meta data
    * 2. meta_type: Metadata type that user sets to identify its metadata
    * 3. copy_func: Metadata copy or transform function to be provided when there
    * is buffer transformation
    * 4. release_func: Metadata release function to be provided when it is no
    * longer required.
    *
    * osd_sink_pad_buffer_probe will extract metadata received on OSD sink pad
    * and update params for drawing rectangle, object information etc. */

    static GstPadProbeReturn
    nvinfer_src_pad_buffer_probe (GstPad * pad, GstPadProbeInfo * info,
    gpointer u_data)
    {
    GstBuffer *buf = (GstBuffer *) info->data;
    NvDsMetaList * l_frame = NULL;
    NvDsUserMeta *user_meta = NULL;
    NvDsMetaType user_meta_type = NVDS_USER_FRAME_META_EXAMPLE;

    NvDsBatchMeta *batch_meta = gst_buffer_get_nvds_batch_meta (buf);

    for (l_frame = batch_meta->frame_meta_list; l_frame != NULL;
    l_frame = l_frame->next) {
    NvDsFrameMeta *frame_meta = (NvDsFrameMeta *) (l_frame->data);

    /* Acquire NvDsUserMeta user meta from pool */
    user_meta = nvds_acquire_user_meta_from_pool(batch_meta);

    /* Set NvDsUserMeta below */
    user_meta->user_meta_data = (void *)set_metadata_ptr();
    user_meta->base_meta.meta_type = user_meta_type;
    user_meta->base_meta.copy_func = (NvDsMetaCopyFunc)copy_user_meta;
    user_meta->base_meta.release_func = (NvDsMetaReleaseFunc)release_user_meta;

    /* We want to add NvDsUserMeta to frame level */
    nvds_add_user_meta_to_frame(frame_meta, user_meta);
    }
    return GST_PAD_PROBE_OK;
    }

將客製化訊息傳換json以之後發送訊息

nvmsgconv的功能:
利用NVDS_EVENT_MSG_METAmetadata來產生JSON格式的”DeepStream Schema” payload。
所產生的payload會以NVDS_META_PAYLOAD的型態儲存到buffer。
除了NvDsEventMsgMeta定義的常用訊號結構,使用者還可以自訂客製化物件並加到NVDS_EVENT_MSG_METAmetadata。要加入自定義訊息NvDsEventMsgMeta提供”extMsg”和”extMsgSize”欄位。使用者可以把自定義的structure指針assign給”extMsg”,並且在”extMsgSize”指令資料大小。

以deepstream-test4為例,在這裡message放入了客製化訊息NvDsVehicleObject和NvDsPersonObject,如果想要客製化自己的訊息就必須要自己定義。

自製自己的客製化訊息
可以參考
/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/libs/nvmsgconv/deepstream_schema/eventmsg_payload.cpp參考客製化訊息如何定義轉換成json

nvmsgconv的原始碼
/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/gst-plugins/gst-nvmsgconv
/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/libs/nvmsgconv

  • nvmsgconv開啟除錯功能
    debug-payload-dir : Absolute path of the directory to dump payloads for debugging
  1. 以deepstream-test4為例,首先將模型的偵測結果NvDsObjectMeta轉換成NvDsEventMsgMeta,在這步將訊息struct加到extMsg
  2. 將製作好的NvDsEventMsgMeta加進buffer裡面,metadata為NvDsUserMeta,在這一步也要指定meta_copy_func、meta_free_func

mvmsgbroker使用方法

以下將以rabbitmq為範例

  1. 安裝rabbitmq client
    說明文件在/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/libs/amqp_protocol_adaptor的readme.md

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    git clone -b v0.8.0  --recursive https://github.com/alanxz/rabbitmq-c.git
    cd rabbitmq-c
    mkdir build && cd build
    cmake ..
    cmake --build .
    sudo cp librabbitmq/librabbitmq.so.4 /opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/lib/
    sudo ldconfig
  2. 安裝rabbitmq server

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#Install rabbitmq on your ubuntu system: https://www.rabbitmq.com/install-debian.html
#The “Using rabbitmq.com APT Repository” procedure is known to work well

sudo apt-get install rabbitmq-server

#Ensure rabbitmq service has started by running (should be the case):
sudo service rabbitmq-server status

#Otherwise
sudo service rabbitmq-server start
  1. 設定連線詳細資訊
  2. 建立cfg_amqp.txt連線資訊檔(/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/libs/amqp_protocol_adaptor 有範例),並且傳給nvmsgbroker。內容範例如下
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[message-broker]
hostname = localhost
port = 5672
username = guest
password = guest
exchange = amq.topic
topic = topicname
amqp-framesize = 131072
#share-connection = 1
  • exchange: 預設的exchange是amq.topic,可以更改成其他的
  • Topic : 設定要發送的topic名稱
  • share-connection : Uncommenting this field signifies that the connection created can be shared with other components within the same process.
  1. 直接將連線資訊傳給msgapi_connect_ptr
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conn_handle = msgapi_connect_ptr((char *)"url;port;username;password",(nvds_msgapi_connect_cb_t) sample_msgapi_connect_cb, (char *)CFG_FILE);
  1. 測試用程式
    /opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/libs/amqp_protocol_adaptor有測試用的程式test_amqp_proto_async.ctest_amqp_proto_sync.c,可以用來測試連線是否成功,編譯方式如下
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    make -f Makefile.test
    ./test_amqp_proto_async
    ./test_amqp_proto_sync
    注意:
  • 你可能須要root權限才能在這個資料夾編譯程式
  • libnvds_amqp_proto.so 位於 /opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-/lib/
  1. 測試和驗證發送出去的訊息
    • 建立exchange , queue,並且將他們綁定在一起
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# Rabbitmq management:
It comes with a command line tool which you can use to create/configure all of your queues/exchanges/etc
https://www.rabbitmq.com/management.html

# Install rabbitmq management plugin:
sudo rabbitmq-plugins enable rabbitmq_management

# Use the default exchange amq.topic
OR create an exchange as below, the same name as the one you specify within the cfg_amqp.txt
#sudo rabbitmqadmin -u guest -p guest -V / declare exchange name=myexchange type=topic

# Create a Queue
sudo rabbitmqadmin -u guest -p guest -V / declare queue name=myqueue durable=false auto_delete=true

#Bind Queue to exchange with routhing_key specification
rabbitmqadmin -u guest -p guest -V / declare binding source=amq.topic destination=myqueue routing_key=topicname

#To check if the queues were actually created, execute:
$ sudo rabbitmqctl list_queues
Listing queues
myqueue 0
* 接收訊息
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#Install the amqp-tools
sudo apt-get install amqp-tools

cat <<EOF > test_amqp_recv.sh
while read -r line; do
echo "\$line"
done
EOF

chmod +x test_amqp_recv.sh
* 執行consumer
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amqp-consume  -q "myqueue" -r "topicname" -e "amq.topic" ./test_amqp_recv.sh

混用c 和 c++ 程式

https://hackmd.io/@rhythm/HyOxzDkmD
https://embeddedartistry.com/blog/2017/05/01/mixing-c-and-c-extern-c/

async property

某些狀況下async property 設為true會讓pipeline卡住,還需要進一步了解原因

nvmsgconv 詳細payload設定

/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream/sources/libs/nvmsgconv/nvmsgconv.cpp裡面可以看到nvds_msg2p_ctx_create這個函式,是用來產出payload的函式。在nvmsgconv讀取的yaml檔裡面可以設定的group和屬性如下

sensor

  • enable : 是否啟用這個sensor
  • id : 對應NvDsEventMsgMeta的sensorId
  • type :
  • description
  • location
    • lat;lon;alt的格式
  • coordinate
    • x;y;z的格式

place

analytics

NvDsEventMsgMeta 轉換成json的詳細實作

/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/libs/nvmsgconv/deepstream_schema/eventmsg_payload.cpp這個程式裡,分別有sensor, place, analytics的轉換實作

客製化nvmsgconv payload

如果要客製化payload的話,可以參考/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/libs/nvmsgconv/deepstream_schema/eventmsg_payload.cpp裡面的實作,並且加入自己需要的客製化payload。首先將整個/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/sources/libs/nvmsgconv複製到其他資料夾並且準備編譯環境

編譯環境

這裡介紹在Ubuntu20.04的桌上型主機上環境的配置方法,Jetson的環境配置方法可能略有不同。

  • 下載並且編譯protobuf
    在Ubuntu20.04下使用apt-get install protobuf 只會安裝到protobuf 3.6的版本,而許多標頭檔要到3.7以上才有,而且不能超過3.19,以免某些標頭檔又遺失。如果中間有步驟做錯,只要還沒make install,建議直接刪除protobuf的資料夾,重新下載並且編譯。

首先直接從github下載protobuf原始碼

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git clone https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf.git

切換版本到v3.19.6,並且更新submodule。

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cd protobuf
git submodule update --init --recursive
./autogen.sh

編譯並且安裝,make check過程中如果有錯誤,編譯出來的程式可能會有部分功能遺失。

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./configure
make
make check
sudo make install
sudo ldconfig # refresh shared library cache.

編譯客製化的nvmsgconv

接下來進到nvmsgconv的資料夾,修改一下最後產出的lib檔案名稱和install的位置,然後用make指令編譯

預訓練模型

/opt/nvidia/deepstream/deepstream-6.2/samples/models/tao_pretrained_mod
els/trafficcamnet

usb相機

https://docs.nvidia.com/jetson/archives/r35.4.1/DeveloperGuide/text/SD/CameraDevelopment/CameraSoftwareDevelopmentSolution.html#applications-using-gstreamer-with-the-nvarguscamerasrc-plugin

儲存影像

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/drawn-rectangle-is-not-available-on-encoded-frame/178022/7?u=jenhao

元件速度測量

https://forums.developer.nvidia.com/t/deepstream-sdk-faq/80236/12?u=jenhao

參考:
https://www.gclue.jp/2022/06/gstreamer.html

Ubuntu設定home目錄到定另一顆硬碟

在現在常見的SSD作業系統碟加上HDD資料碟的配置,下面接介紹如何手動將/home移動到HDD資料碟

格式化硬碟(完全新的硬碟才需要),這裡假設整顆硬碟不再分割磁碟

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lsblk #找出硬碟的名稱
sudo mkfs -t ext4 /dev/sdb #格式化整顆硬碟

將資料碟mount在一個暫時的資料夾下面

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sudo mkdir /mnt/tmp
sudo mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/tmp

複製原本/home裡面的資料

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sudo rsync -avx /home/ /mnt/tmp

建立/home的永久mount點

  • 先用以下指令查詢資料碟的UUID
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    sudo blkid
  • sudo nano /etc/fstab # or any other editor將下面一行寫入/etc/fstab文件最後面來設定mount點
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UUID=<noted number from above>    /home    ext4    defaults   0  2

重開機檢查是否生效

(危險區)刪除舊的/home

以下指令會刪掉舊的/home。務必先unmount新的home以免刪錯

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sudo umount /home    # unmount the new home first!
sudo rm -rf /home/* # deletes the old home

掛載另一顆硬碟

將/home掛載到另一顆硬碟

參考:
https://askubuntu.com/a/50539

https://www.tecmint.com/convert-home-directory-partition-linux/

https://help.ubuntu.com/community/DiskSpace

GStreamer基礎教學

GObject 和 GLib

GStreamer建立在GObject和GLib之上,熟悉GObject和GLib對於學習GStreamer會有幫助,要區分目前的函示是屬於GStreamer還是GLib的方法就是GStreamer的函式是gst_開頭,而GLib的函式是g_開頭

1.簡單範例

範例

下面程式碼是一個最基礎的GStreamer範例basic-tutorial-1.c

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#include <gst/gst.h>

#ifdef __APPLE__
#include <TargetConditionals.h>
#endif

int
tutorial_main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
GstElement *pipeline;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Build the pipeline */
pipeline =
gst_parse_launch
("playbin uri=https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm",
NULL);

/* Start playing */
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);

/* Wait until error or EOS */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);
msg =
gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE,
GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS);

/* See next tutorial for proper error message handling/parsing */
if (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg) == GST_MESSAGE_ERROR) {
g_error ("An error occurred! Re-run with the GST_DEBUG=*:WARN environment "
"variable set for more details.");
}

/* Free resources */
gst_message_unref (msg);
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return 0;
}

int
main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
#if defined(__APPLE__) && TARGET_OS_MAC && !TARGET_OS_IPHONE
return gst_macos_main (tutorial_main, argc, argv, NULL);
#else
return tutorial_main (argc, argv);
#endif
}

{:file=’basic-tutorial-1.c’}

在Linux下可以用以下指令編譯。

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gcc basic-tutorial-1.c -o basic-tutorial-1 `pkg-config --cflags --libs gstreamer-1.0`

解說

上面這個範例最重要的只有五個需要注意的地方,其他的程式碼都是程式結束後清理的例行動作。

  1. 首先所有的Gstreamer都必須呼叫gst_init(),他有三個功能
  • 初始化GStreamer
  • 確認plug-ins都可以使用
  • 執行命令列的參數選項,可以直接將main函式的argcargv直接傳入gst_init()
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    /* Initialize GStreamer */
    gst_init (&argc, &argv);

    /* Build the pipeline */
  1. gst_parse_launch
    GStreamer 元件像水管一樣接起來組成像水管的pipeline,影音資料像像水流一樣,source元件是pipeline的起頭,像水龍頭一樣流出影音資料。sink元件是pipeline的結尾,是影音資料最後到達的地方。過程中經過中間的處理原件可以對影音資料進行處理。

通常你會需要用程式定義每個元件和串接方式,但是如果你的pipeline很簡單,你可以直接用文字描述的方式作為參數傳給gst_parse_launch來建立pipeline

  1. playbin
    在這個範例中我們用到playbin來建立pipeline,playbin是一個特殊的元件,他可以同時做為source和sink,而且他可以自己建立成一個pipeline。在這個範例我們給他一個影片串流的URL,如果URL有錯或是指定的影片檔不存在,playbin可以回傳錯誤,在這個範例我們遇到錯誤的時候是直接離開程式。

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    gst_parse_launch
    ("playbin uri=https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm",
    NULL);
  2. state
    GStreamer 還有一個重要的觀念state。每一個GStreamer element都有state,很像影音撥放器的播放和暫停按鈕。在這個範例裡面,pipeline是我們唯一的element,因此要把他設為撥放才會開始撥放影片。

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    /* Start playing */
    gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
  3. message bus、gst_element_get_bus、gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered
    在下面這兩行,gst_element_get_bus會取得pipeline的bus,而gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered會把main thread停住直到我們感興趣的訊息,在這裡是GST_MESSAGE_ERRORGST_MESSAGE_EOS,而GST_MESSAGE_EOS代表影片結束了,因此當影片結束的時候整個程式就會停止。

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/* Wait until error or EOS */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);
msg =
gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE,
GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS);

2. GStreamer 觀念

這個教學將會示範用程式建立pipeline。在這裡將會學到

  • 介紹GStreamer element並且學習如何建立
  • 串接element
  • 客製化element行為
  • 利用message bus監看錯誤是件並且從中取出錯誤訊息

用程式寫出前一個教學的撥放器

完整程式碼basic-tutorial-2.c

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#include <gst/gst.h>

#ifdef __APPLE__
#include <TargetConditionals.h>
#endif

int
tutorial_main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
GstElement *pipeline, *source, *sink;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;
GstStateChangeReturn ret;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the elements */
source = gst_element_factory_make ("videotestsrc", "source");
sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autovideosink", "sink");

/* Create the empty pipeline */
pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!pipeline || !source || !sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Build the pipeline */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), source, sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link (source, sink) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Modify the source's properties */
g_object_set (source, "pattern", 0, NULL);

/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Wait until error or EOS */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);
msg =
gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE,
GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS);

/* Parse message */
if (msg != NULL) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR:
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n",
GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n",
debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
g_print ("End-Of-Stream reached.\n");
break;
default:
/* We should not reach here because we only asked for ERRORs and EOS */
g_printerr ("Unexpected message received.\n");
break;
}
gst_message_unref (msg);
}

/* Free resources */
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return 0;
}

int
main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
#if defined(__APPLE__) && TARGET_OS_MAC && !TARGET_OS_IPHONE
return gst_macos_main (tutorial_main, argc, argv, NULL);
#else
return tutorial_main (argc, argv);
#endif
}

{:file=’basic-tutorial-2.c’}

GStreamer element

element是GStreamer最根本的元素,影音資料從source流向sink,過程中經過filter對影音資料進行處理,這三個元素組成為pipeline

pipeline

建立element

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/* Create the elements */
source = gst_element_factory_make ("videotestsrc", "source");
sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autovideosink", "sink");

建立element可以用gst_element_factory_make()來建立,第一個參數是要建立的element名稱,第二個參數是我們給element取的名字。幫element命名的好處是如果你沒有儲存pointer,你可以用名稱來找到這個element,而且除錯訊息也會變得比較有意義。

這個教學中建立兩個element,videotestsrcautovideosink,然後沒有建立任何filter。所以pipeline長的像下圖。

basic pipeline

videotestsrc是一個source element,他會產生除錯用的影像。

autovideosink是一個sink element,他會將影像顯示到螢幕上。

建立pipeline

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/* Create the empty pipeline */
pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!pipeline || !source || !sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

所有的element都必須在pipeline裡面才能運作,利用gst_pipeline_new(),可以建立新的pipeline。

bin

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/* Build the pipeline */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), source, sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link (source, sink) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

Gstreamer的bin是也是一個element,它可以拿來成裝其他 GstElement。GstBin的類別關係圖如下

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GObject
╰──GInitiallyUnowned
╰──GstObject
╰──GstElement
╰──GstBin

pipeline也是bin,用來裝入element。

利用gst_bin_add_many()可以將element放入pipeline,他可以一次加入許多element。他的第一個參數是bin,第二個參數之後都是element,也就是要放入的element

連接element

到目前為止element並還沒有連接起來,利用gst_element_link()將element聯接起來。他的第一個參數是來源,第二個參數是目標,也就是第一個參數的element會把資料傳給第二個參數的element,所以是有順序性的。

注意,只有位於同一個bin的element可以互相聯接。

屬性

GStreamer 的element全部都是一種特殊的GObject,因此他們都有property,有些可以讀取有些可以寫入

property必須透過GLib的方法g_object_get()g_object_set()來讀取和寫入,因此注意到這輛個函式是g_開頭。

g_object_set()支援一次修改多個properties

回到我們的程式,我們改變videotestsrc的”pattern” properties,你可以將它改成其他類型來看看輸出的畫面有什麼改變。

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/* Modify the source's properties */
g_object_set (source, "pattern", 0, NULL);

錯誤檢查

到目前為止pipeline都已經建立完成,接下來我們要增加一些程式來應付錯誤發生的情況。

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/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

這是我們一樣呼叫gst_element_set_state來開始撥放,但是我們另外檢查gst_element_set_state回傳的錯誤。

另外,我們還多了一些程式來處理gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered()拿到的錯誤訊息,錯誤訊息是一個GstMessage,如果遇到EOS以外的錯誤訊息,就把他印出來。

GstMessage十分方便,幾乎可以承載任何形式的訊息,而GSstreamer提供了許多解析訊息的函式。

首先我們先利用GST_MESSAGE_TYPE()來取得錯誤的類型,如果不是EOS錯誤,就再用gst_message_parse_error()把錯誤轉型成GLib的GError以及錯誤訊息的文字。注意使用完之後要記得釋放。

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/* Parse message */
if (msg != NULL) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR:
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n",
GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n",
debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
g_print ("End-Of-Stream reached.\n");
break;
default:
/* We should not reach here because we only asked for ERRORs and EOS */
g_printerr ("Unexpected message received.\n");
break;
}
gst_message_unref (msg);
}

GStreamer bus

GStreamer bus是用來將元素所產生的GstMessage按順序傳送給應用程式的thread。這裡要強調的是,消息是從處理影像的thread傳遞給應用程式的thread。

訊息可以用gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered()這個函式來同步取得。或是用signals 來非同步取得,應用設必須隨時注意bus上有沒有出現錯誤。

動態pipeline

在這個範例所建立的pipeline並不是完整的,而這裡將示範如何在程式運行時才將完整的pipeline建立好。

程式將打開一個multiplexed (或是 muxed)的檔案,也就是聲音和影像都儲存在一個檔案(container file)。用來打開這種檔案的element稱為demuxers。常見的container file有mp4、MKV、WMV等等。

如果container file裡面包含多個串流(例如一個影片串流,兩個聲音串流),demuxer就會把他們分別分配到不同的出口,而不同的pipeline就可以各自處理這些串流。

在GStreamer裡element用來傳遞資料的接口稱為pad(GstPad),sink pad就是資料流進element的口,以及source pad就是element將資料流出的口。記憶的方式就是source elements只會擁有source pad,而sink element只會擁有sink padfilter element則同時擁有source padsink pad

src

sink

filter

在這個範例裡面,demuxer包含一個sink pad 和多個 source pad,而demuxer複雜的地方就在於在讀取檔案之前沒辦法確定demuxer到底有多少個source pad,因為demuxer要讀取到檔案之後才能決定有多少個source pad

如此一來,demuxers一開始是沒有任何source pad的,因此也沒辦法在編譯時就將demuxers跟其他element連接。當程式開始運作後並且讀取到檔案時,這時候才是連接demuxer的時機。

為了簡單起見這個範例只連接audio pad而忽略video pad。

範例

下面範例basic-tutorial-3.c將示範動態pipeline

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#include <gst/gst.h>

/* Structure to contain all our information, so we can pass it to callbacks */
typedef struct _CustomData {
GstElement *pipeline;
GstElement *source;
GstElement *convert;
GstElement *resample;
GstElement *sink;
} CustomData;

/* Handler for the pad-added signal */
static void pad_added_handler (GstElement *src, GstPad *pad, CustomData *data);

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
CustomData data;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;
GstStateChangeReturn ret;
gboolean terminate = FALSE;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the elements */
data.source = gst_element_factory_make ("uridecodebin", "source");
data.convert = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "convert");
data.resample = gst_element_factory_make ("audioresample", "resample");
data.sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autoaudiosink", "sink");

/* Create the empty pipeline */
data.pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!data.pipeline || !data.source || !data.convert || !data.resample || !data.sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Build the pipeline. Note that we are NOT linking the source at this
* point. We will do it later. */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (data.pipeline), data.source, data.convert, data.resample, data.sink, NULL);
if (!gst_element_link_many (data.convert, data.resample, data.sink, NULL)) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Set the URI to play */
g_object_set (data.source, "uri", "https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm", NULL);

/* Connect to the pad-added signal */
g_signal_connect (data.source, "pad-added", G_CALLBACK (pad_added_handler), &data);

/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (data.pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Listen to the bus */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (data.pipeline);
do {
msg = gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE,
GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED | GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS);

/* Parse message */
if (msg != NULL) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR:
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n", GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n", debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);
terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
g_print ("End-Of-Stream reached.\n");
terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED:
/* We are only interested in state-changed messages from the pipeline */
if (GST_MESSAGE_SRC (msg) == GST_OBJECT (data.pipeline)) {
GstState old_state, new_state, pending_state;
gst_message_parse_state_changed (msg, &old_state, &new_state, &pending_state);
g_print ("Pipeline state changed from %s to %s:\n",
gst_element_state_get_name (old_state), gst_element_state_get_name (new_state));
}
break;
default:
/* We should not reach here */
g_printerr ("Unexpected message received.\n");
break;
}
gst_message_unref (msg);
}
} while (!terminate);

/* Free resources */
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (data.pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return 0;
}

/* This function will be called by the pad-added signal */
static void pad_added_handler (GstElement *src, GstPad *new_pad, CustomData *data) {
GstPad *sink_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (data->convert, "sink");
GstPadLinkReturn ret;
GstCaps *new_pad_caps = NULL;
GstStructure *new_pad_struct = NULL;
const gchar *new_pad_type = NULL;

g_print ("Received new pad '%s' from '%s':\n", GST_PAD_NAME (new_pad), GST_ELEMENT_NAME (src));

/* If our converter is already linked, we have nothing to do here */
if (gst_pad_is_linked (sink_pad)) {
g_print ("We are already linked. Ignoring.\n");
goto exit;
}

/* Check the new pad's type */
new_pad_caps = gst_pad_get_current_caps (new_pad);
new_pad_struct = gst_caps_get_structure (new_pad_caps, 0);
new_pad_type = gst_structure_get_name (new_pad_struct);
if (!g_str_has_prefix (new_pad_type, "audio/x-raw")) {
g_print ("It has type '%s' which is not raw audio. Ignoring.\n", new_pad_type);
goto exit;
}

/* Attempt the link */
ret = gst_pad_link (new_pad, sink_pad);
if (GST_PAD_LINK_FAILED (ret)) {
g_print ("Type is '%s' but link failed.\n", new_pad_type);
} else {
g_print ("Link succeeded (type '%s').\n", new_pad_type);
}

exit:
/* Unreference the new pad's caps, if we got them */
if (new_pad_caps != NULL)
gst_caps_unref (new_pad_caps);

/* Unreference the sink pad */
gst_object_unref (sink_pad);
}

{:file=’basic-tutorial-3.c’}

解說

首先我們先將資料組成一個struct以便後面使用

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/* Structure to contain all our information, so we can pass it to callbacks */
typedef struct _CustomData {
GstElement *pipeline;
GstElement *source;
GstElement *convert;
GstElement *resample;
GstElement *sink;
} CustomData;

接下來這行是forward reference晚一點會實做這個函式。

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/* Handler for the pad-added signal */
static void pad_added_handler (GstElement *src, GstPad *pad, CustomData *data);

接下來建立element,在這裡uridecodebin會自動初始化需要的element(sources, demuxers and decoders)以便將URI轉換成影音串流。跟playbin比起來他只完成了一半,因為它包含了demuxers,所以只有到執行階段的時候source pad才會被初始化。

audioconvert用來轉換audio的格式。audioresample用來調整audio的sample rate。

autoaudiosinkautovideosink類似,他將會把聲音串流輸出到音效卡

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/* Create the elements */
data.source = gst_element_factory_make ("uridecodebin", "source");
data.convert = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "convert");
data.resample = gst_element_factory_make ("audioresample", "resample");
data.sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autoaudiosink", "sink");

串接element

接下來我們將converter, resample and sink這些element連接起來。注意這時候還不可以連接source,因為這時候souce還沒有source pad。

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if (!gst_element_link_many (data.convert, data.resample, data.sink, NULL)) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return -1;
}

然後設定source要讀取的URI

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/* Set the URI to play */
g_object_set (data.source, "uri", "https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm", NULL);

Signals

GSignals是GStreamer的一個重點,他讓我們可以在我們感興趣的事情發生的時候通知我們。GStreamer用名稱來區分signal,而每一個GObject也都有自己的signal。
``
在這個範例我們將會關心source(也就是uridecodebin element)發出來的pad-added這個訊號。我們必須用g_signal_connect()來連接訊號並且給他callback function(pad_added_handler)和我們的data pointer,讓callback functiony在號發生的時候執行。

GStreamer不會對data pointer做任何事情,他只是單純的把data pointer傳進我們的callback function,以便我們可以傳送參數給callback function。

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/* Connect to the pad-added signal */
g_signal_connect (data.source, "pad-added", G_CALLBACK (pad_added_handler), &data);

在這個範例我們傳入字定義的data struct CustomData

我們的callback function

當source element有足夠的資訊可以產生source pad的時候,就會觸發”pad-added”訊號,而這時候我們的callback就會被呼叫。

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static void pad_added_handler (GstElement *src, GstPad *new_pad, CustomData *data)

在我們的callback中,第一個參數是觸發訊號的GstElement,也就是uridecodebin

第二個參數是source剛剛產生的pad,也就是我們想要連接的pad。

第三個參數是一個pointer,我們將用他來傳入我麼的參數給callback。

在callback裡面,我們將CustomData裡的converter element,利用gst_element_get_static_pad ()將他的sink pad取出來。他也就是要跟source新產生的pad對接的pad。

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GstPad *sink_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (data->convert, "sink");

在上一個範例我們讓GStreamer自己決定要連接的pad,在這裡我們將手動連接pad。首先加入下面這段程式碼以免pad重複被連接

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/* If our converter is already linked, we have nothing to do here */
if (gst_pad_is_linked (sink_pad)) {
g_print ("We are already linked. Ignoring.\n");
goto exit;
}

接下來我們檢查新產生的pad他產生的資料是什麼,因為我們只需要連接audio而忽略video。而且我們不能把video的pad和audio的pad對接。

gst_pad_get_current_caps()可以查到pad會輸出什麼資料,pad的”能力”(capabilities)被紀錄在GstCaps裡面。而pad所有可用的能力可以用gst_pad_query_caps()查詢

GstCaps 裡面可能包含許多的GstStructure,每一個都代表不同的”能力”。

由於目前我們知道新產生的pad只會有一個capabilities,所以我們直接用gst_caps_get_structure()取得他的第一個GstStructure。

最後再利用gst_structure_get_name()來取得這個GstStructure的名稱,這裡將會有關於pad傳出來的資料格式。

假如我們拿到的pad輸出的資料格式不是audio/x-raw,那就不是我們要的pad。如果是的話我們就連接他。

gst_element_link()可以直接連接兩個pad,參數的順序是source在來sink,而且這兩個pad所在的element必須要在同一個bin裡面才可以連接。如此一來我們就完成了。

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/* Attempt the link */
ret = gst_pad_link (new_pad, sink_pad);
if (GST_PAD_LINK_FAILED (ret)) {
g_print ("Type is '%s' but link failed.\n", new_pad_type);
} else {
g_print ("Link succeeded (type '%s').\n", new_pad_type);
}

GStreamer States

GStreamer共有四種狀態

  • NULL: 無狀態或初始狀態
  • READY: element已經準備好進入PAUSED狀態
  • PAUSED: element已經暫停,並且準備好處理資料。sink element這時候只接受一個buffer,之後就阻塞
  • PLAYING: element正在撥放,clock正在運作,資料正在傳輸。

注意,你只能從移動到鄰近的狀態。也就是不可以直接從NUL跳到PLAYING。當你設定pipeline 為PLAYING的時候,GSstreamer自動幫你處理這些事情。

下面這段程式監聽message bus,每當狀態有改變的時候就印出來讓你知道。每一個element都會丟出目前狀態的訊息,所以我們過濾出pipeline的狀態訊息。

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case GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED:
/* We are only interested in state-changed messages from the pipeline */
if (GST_MESSAGE_SRC (msg) == GST_OBJECT (data.pipeline)) {
GstState old_state, new_state, pending_state;
gst_message_parse_state_changed (msg, &old_state, &new_state, &pending_state);
g_print ("Pipeline state changed from %s to %s:\n",
gst_element_state_get_name (old_state), gst_element_state_get_name (new_state));
}
break;

時間管理

在這節將會學習到GStreamer時間相關的功能包含

  • 向pipeline詢問資訊例如目前串流的位置和長度。
  • 尋找(跳躍)到串流上不同的位置(時間)

GstQuery

GstQuery是一個用來詢問element或是pad的資訊的機制。在這個範例我們將詢問pipeline是否可以可以搜尋時間(例如如果是串流就沒辦法搜尋時間),如果可以我們就可以在影片時間軸上跳躍。

這這個範例我們每隔一段時間就向pipeline詢問目前的影片時間位置,如此一來我們就可以將時間顯示在我們的螢幕上。

範例

我們將以範例basic-tutorial-4.c為例。

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#include <gst/gst.h>

/* Structure to contain all our information, so we can pass it around */
typedef struct _CustomData {
GstElement *playbin; /* Our one and only element */
gboolean playing; /* Are we in the PLAYING state? */
gboolean terminate; /* Should we terminate execution? */
gboolean seek_enabled; /* Is seeking enabled for this media? */
gboolean seek_done; /* Have we performed the seek already? */
gint64 duration; /* How long does this media last, in nanoseconds */
} CustomData;

/* Forward definition of the message processing function */
static void handle_message (CustomData *data, GstMessage *msg);

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
CustomData data;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;
GstStateChangeReturn ret;

data.playing = FALSE;
data.terminate = FALSE;
data.seek_enabled = FALSE;
data.seek_done = FALSE;
data.duration = GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the elements */
data.playbin = gst_element_factory_make ("playbin", "playbin");

if (!data.playbin) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Set the URI to play */
g_object_set (data.playbin, "uri", "https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm", NULL);

/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (data.playbin, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (data.playbin);
return -1;
}

/* Listen to the bus */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (data.playbin);
do {
msg = gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, 100 * GST_MSECOND,
GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED | GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS | GST_MESSAGE_DURATION);

/* Parse message */
if (msg != NULL) {
handle_message (&data, msg);
} else {
/* We got no message, this means the timeout expired */
if (data.playing) {
gint64 current = -1;

/* Query the current position of the stream */
if (!gst_element_query_position (data.playbin, GST_FORMAT_TIME, &current)) {
g_printerr ("Could not query current position.\n");
}

/* If we didn't know it yet, query the stream duration */
if (!GST_CLOCK_TIME_IS_VALID (data.duration)) {
if (!gst_element_query_duration (data.playbin, GST_FORMAT_TIME, &data.duration)) {
g_printerr ("Could not query current duration.\n");
}
}

/* Print current position and total duration */
g_print ("Position %" GST_TIME_FORMAT " / %" GST_TIME_FORMAT "\r",
GST_TIME_ARGS (current), GST_TIME_ARGS (data.duration));

/* If seeking is enabled, we have not done it yet, and the time is right, seek */
if (data.seek_enabled && !data.seek_done && current > 10 * GST_SECOND) {
g_print ("\nReached 10s, performing seek...\n");
gst_element_seek_simple (data.playbin, GST_FORMAT_TIME,
GST_SEEK_FLAG_FLUSH | GST_SEEK_FLAG_KEY_UNIT, 30 * GST_SECOND);
data.seek_done = TRUE;
}
}
}
} while (!data.terminate);

/* Free resources */
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (data.playbin, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (data.playbin);
return 0;
}

static void handle_message (CustomData *data, GstMessage *msg) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR:
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n", GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n", debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);
data->terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
g_print ("End-Of-Stream reached.\n");
data->terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_DURATION:
/* The duration has changed, mark the current one as invalid */
data->duration = GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED: {
GstState old_state, new_state, pending_state;
gst_message_parse_state_changed (msg, &old_state, &new_state, &pending_state);
if (GST_MESSAGE_SRC (msg) == GST_OBJECT (data->playbin)) {
g_print ("Pipeline state changed from %s to %s:\n",
gst_element_state_get_name (old_state), gst_element_state_get_name (new_state));

/* Remember whether we are in the PLAYING state or not */
data->playing = (new_state == GST_STATE_PLAYING);

if (data->playing) {
/* We just moved to PLAYING. Check if seeking is possible */
GstQuery *query;
gint64 start, end;
query = gst_query_new_seeking (GST_FORMAT_TIME);
if (gst_element_query (data->playbin, query)) {
gst_query_parse_seeking (query, NULL, &data->seek_enabled, &start, &end);
if (data->seek_enabled) {
g_print ("Seeking is ENABLED from %" GST_TIME_FORMAT " to %" GST_TIME_FORMAT "\n",
GST_TIME_ARGS (start), GST_TIME_ARGS (end));
} else {
g_print ("Seeking is DISABLED for this stream.\n");
}
}
else {
g_printerr ("Seeking query failed.");
}
gst_query_unref (query);
}
}
} break;
default:
/* We should not reach here */
g_printerr ("Unexpected message received.\n");
break;
}
gst_message_unref (msg);
}

定義資料struct

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/* Structure to contain all our information, so we can pass it around */
typedef struct _CustomData {
GstElement *playbin; /* Our one and only element */
gboolean playing; /* Are we in the PLAYING state? */
gboolean terminate; /* Should we terminate execution? */
gboolean seek_enabled; /* Is seeking enabled for this media? */
gboolean seek_done; /* Have we performed the seek already? */
gint64 duration; /* How long does this media last, in nanoseconds */
} CustomData;

/* Forward definition of the message processing function */
static void handle_message (CustomData *data, GstMessage *msg);

首先定義這個範例會用的到資料struct,同時我們也定義一個handle_message來處理我們的資料。

設定監聽消息的timeout

這個範例我們將會設定gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered()的timeout,如果0.1秒鐘內沒有收到任何訊息,就會發出gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered()會回傳一個NULL。timeoout的設定必須用到GstClockTime,因此我們直接用GST_SECOND 或 GST_MSECOND來產生GstClockTime時間。

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msg = gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, 100 * GST_MSECOND,
GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED | GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS | GST_MESSAGE_DURATION);

更新使用者介面

首先檢查pipeline是PLAYING的才對pipeline做查詢以免出錯。

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/* We got no message, this means the timeout expired */
if (data.playing) {

接著用GstElement提供的方法取得時間。

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/* Query the current position of the stream */
if (!gst_element_query_position (data.pipeline, GST_FORMAT_TIME, &current)) {
g_printerr ("Could not query current position.\n");
}

如果無法取得就改成檢查是否可以詢問stream的長度

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/* If we didn't know it yet, query the stream duration */
if (!GST_CLOCK_TIME_IS_VALID (data.duration)) {
if (!gst_element_query_duration (data.pipeline, GST_FORMAT_TIME, &data.duration)) {
g_printerr ("Could not query current duration.\n");
}
}

接下來就可以詢問影片長度

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/* Print current position and total duration */
g_print ("Position %" GST_TIME_FORMAT " / %" GST_TIME_FORMAT "\r",
GST_TIME_ARGS (current), GST_TIME_ARGS (data.duration));

下一段是在影片時間軸跳躍的程式,利用gst_element_seek_simple()來達成。

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/* If seeking is enabled, we have not done it yet, and the time is right, seek */
if (data.seek_enabled && !data.seek_done && current > 10 * GST_SECOND) {
g_print ("\nReached 10s, performing seek...\n");
gst_element_seek_simple (data.pipeline, GST_FORMAT_TIME,
GST_SEEK_FLAG_FLUSH | GST_SEEK_FLAG_KEY_UNIT, 30 * GST_SECOND);
data.seek_done = TRUE;
}
  1. GST_FORMAT_TIME: 目標時間的格式
  2. GstSeekFlags: 指令跳躍的行為
  • GST_SEEK_FLAG_FLUSH: 直接拋棄掉目標時間之前的所有畫面。
  • GST_SEEK_FLAG_KEY_UNIT: 移動到目標時間附近的key frame
  • GST_SEEK_FLAG_ACCURATE: 精準的移動到目標時間上。
  1. 目標時間: 是指定要跳躍到的時間位置

Message Pump

首先如果影片長度改變我們就先讓pipeline不能被詢問影片時間。

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case GST_MESSAGE_DURATION:
/* The duration has changed, mark the current one as invalid */
data->duration = GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE;
break;

接下來這段程式如果pipeline狀態改變,確認pipeline為PAUSED或是PLAYING才可以在時間軸跳躍

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case GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED: {
GstState old_state, new_state, pending_state;
gst_message_parse_state_changed (msg, &old_state, &new_state, &pending_state);
if (GST_MESSAGE_SRC (msg) == GST_OBJECT (data->playbin)) {
g_print ("Pipeline state changed from %s to %s:\n",
gst_element_state_get_name (old_state), gst_element_state_get_name (new_state));

/* Remember whether we are in the PLAYING state or not */
data->playing = (new_state == GST_STATE_PLAYING);

if (data->playing) {
/* We just moved to PLAYING. Check if seeking is possible */
GstQuery *query;
gint64 start, end;
query = gst_query_new_seeking (GST_FORMAT_TIME);
if (gst_element_query (data->playbin, query)) {
gst_query_parse_seeking (query, NULL, &data->seek_enabled, &start, &end);
if (data->seek_enabled) {
g_print ("Seeking is ENABLED from %" GST_TIME_FORMAT " to %" GST_TIME_FORMAT "\n",
GST_TIME_ARGS (start), GST_TIME_ARGS (end));
} else {
g_print ("Seeking is DISABLED for this stream.\n");
}
}
else {
g_printerr ("Seeking query failed.");
}
gst_query_unref (query);
}
}
}

gst_query_new_seeking()建立一個新的query物件,這個query物件利用gst_element_query()函式被發送到pipeline。如果咬讀去回傳結果可以用gst_query_parse_seeking()

媒體格式和pad Capabilities

Pads

Capabilities 顯示在這個Pad上流動的資料的模樣。例如他可能是”解析度300x200的RGB影片,FPS 30”

Pad可以有多種Capabilities,例如一個video sink可以同時支援RGB和YUV格式。

Capabilities也可以是一個範圍,例如audio sink可以支援samples rates 1~48000。

如果要將兩個element連接起來,他們必須要擁有共同的Capabilities。

如果連接的時候Capabilities沒辦法對應,就會出現negotiation error

Pad templates

Pad 是從Pad templates產生的,他可以產生各種Capabilities 的Pad。

Capabilities範例

下面是一個sink pad。他支援整數型態的raw audio,包含unsigned 8-bit或是 signed, 16-bit little endian。[]裡面代表範圍例如channels可能是一個或兩個。

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SINK template: 'sink'
Availability: Always
Capabilities:
audio/x-raw
format: S16LE
rate: [ 1, 2147483647 ]
channels: [ 1, 2 ]
audio/x-raw
format: U8
rate: [ 1, 2147483647 ]
channels: [ 1, 2 ]

注意有些Capabilities跟平台是有相關性的,要直到READY state的時候才能確定能不能用。

範例

basic-tutorial-6.c

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#include <gst/gst.h>

/* Functions below print the Capabilities in a human-friendly format */
static gboolean print_field (GQuark field, const GValue * value, gpointer pfx) {
gchar *str = gst_value_serialize (value);

g_print ("%s %15s: %s\n", (gchar *) pfx, g_quark_to_string (field), str);
g_free (str);
return TRUE;
}

static void print_caps (const GstCaps * caps, const gchar * pfx) {
guint i;

g_return_if_fail (caps != NULL);

if (gst_caps_is_any (caps)) {
g_print ("%sANY\n", pfx);
return;
}
if (gst_caps_is_empty (caps)) {
g_print ("%sEMPTY\n", pfx);
return;
}

for (i = 0; i < gst_caps_get_size (caps); i++) {
GstStructure *structure = gst_caps_get_structure (caps, i);

g_print ("%s%s\n", pfx, gst_structure_get_name (structure));
gst_structure_foreach (structure, print_field, (gpointer) pfx);
}
}

/* Prints information about a Pad Template, including its Capabilities */
static void print_pad_templates_information (GstElementFactory * factory) {
const GList *pads;
GstStaticPadTemplate *padtemplate;

g_print ("Pad Templates for %s:\n", gst_element_factory_get_longname (factory));
if (!gst_element_factory_get_num_pad_templates (factory)) {
g_print (" none\n");
return;
}

pads = gst_element_factory_get_static_pad_templates (factory);
while (pads) {
padtemplate = pads->data;
pads = g_list_next (pads);

if (padtemplate->direction == GST_PAD_SRC)
g_print (" SRC template: '%s'\n", padtemplate->name_template);
else if (padtemplate->direction == GST_PAD_SINK)
g_print (" SINK template: '%s'\n", padtemplate->name_template);
else
g_print (" UNKNOWN!!! template: '%s'\n", padtemplate->name_template);

if (padtemplate->presence == GST_PAD_ALWAYS)
g_print (" Availability: Always\n");
else if (padtemplate->presence == GST_PAD_SOMETIMES)
g_print (" Availability: Sometimes\n");
else if (padtemplate->presence == GST_PAD_REQUEST) {
g_print (" Availability: On request\n");
} else
g_print (" Availability: UNKNOWN!!!\n");

if (padtemplate->static_caps.string) {
GstCaps *caps;
g_print (" Capabilities:\n");
caps = gst_static_caps_get (&padtemplate->static_caps);
print_caps (caps, " ");
gst_caps_unref (caps);

}

g_print ("\n");
}
}

/* Shows the CURRENT capabilities of the requested pad in the given element */
static void print_pad_capabilities (GstElement *element, gchar *pad_name) {
GstPad *pad = NULL;
GstCaps *caps = NULL;

/* Retrieve pad */
pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (element, pad_name);
if (!pad) {
g_printerr ("Could not retrieve pad '%s'\n", pad_name);
return;
}

/* Retrieve negotiated caps (or acceptable caps if negotiation is not finished yet) */
caps = gst_pad_get_current_caps (pad);
if (!caps)
caps = gst_pad_query_caps (pad, NULL);

/* Print and free */
g_print ("Caps for the %s pad:\n", pad_name);
print_caps (caps, " ");
gst_caps_unref (caps);
gst_object_unref (pad);
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
GstElement *pipeline, *source, *sink;
GstElementFactory *source_factory, *sink_factory;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;
GstStateChangeReturn ret;
gboolean terminate = FALSE;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the element factories */
source_factory = gst_element_factory_find ("audiotestsrc");
sink_factory = gst_element_factory_find ("autoaudiosink");
if (!source_factory || !sink_factory) {
g_printerr ("Not all element factories could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Print information about the pad templates of these factories */
print_pad_templates_information (source_factory);
print_pad_templates_information (sink_factory);

/* Ask the factories to instantiate actual elements */
source = gst_element_factory_create (source_factory, "source");
sink = gst_element_factory_create (sink_factory, "sink");

/* Create the empty pipeline */
pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!pipeline || !source || !sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Build the pipeline */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), source, sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link (source, sink) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Print initial negotiated caps (in NULL state) */
g_print ("In NULL state:\n");
print_pad_capabilities (sink, "sink");

/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state (check the bus for error messages).\n");
}

/* Wait until error, EOS or State Change */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);
do {
msg = gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE, GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS |
GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED);

/* Parse message */
if (msg != NULL) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR:
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n", GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n", debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);
terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
g_print ("End-Of-Stream reached.\n");
terminate = TRUE;
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_STATE_CHANGED:
/* We are only interested in state-changed messages from the pipeline */
if (GST_MESSAGE_SRC (msg) == GST_OBJECT (pipeline)) {
GstState old_state, new_state, pending_state;
gst_message_parse_state_changed (msg, &old_state, &new_state, &pending_state);
g_print ("\nPipeline state changed from %s to %s:\n",
gst_element_state_get_name (old_state), gst_element_state_get_name (new_state));
/* Print the current capabilities of the sink element */
print_pad_capabilities (sink, "sink");
}
break;
default:
/* We should not reach here because we only asked for ERRORs, EOS and STATE_CHANGED */
g_printerr ("Unexpected message received.\n");
break;
}
gst_message_unref (msg);
}
} while (!terminate);

/* Free resources */
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
gst_object_unref (source_factory);
gst_object_unref (sink_factory);
return 0;
}

印出capabilities

print_fieldprint_capsprint_pad_templates可以印出capabilities。

gst_element_get_static_pad()可以用名稱取得Pad,之所以static是因為這個pad永遠都會出現在這個element裡面。

gst_pad_get_current_caps()可以取得Pad目前的capabilities,這個capabilities是固定的也可能之後會改變,甚只有可能目前沒有capabilities,要看negotiation proces的狀態來決定。

我們可以用gst_pad_query_caps()來取得在NULL state時的Capabilities

GstElementFactory

GstElementFactory用來初始化指定的element。

gst_element_factory_make() = gst_element_factory_find()+ gst_element_factory_create()

gst_pad_get_current_caps() 和 gst_pad_query_caps() 的差別

  • gst_pad_get_current_caps() : 目前可用的Capabilities
  • gst_pad_query_caps() : 包含所有可能的Capabilities

多執行續和Pad Availability

通常GStreamer會自己處理多執行續,但有時候會需要手動處理他。

Multithreading

GStreamer 是一個Multithreading的框架。他會自己產生和消滅thread,甚至plugin可以在自己的process裡面產生新的thread,例如video decoder會自己產生四個thread。

Multithreading範例

下面是一個多執行續的pipeline,通常多個sink的pipeline是Multithreading
Alt text

Request pads

在前面的範例我們已經知道uridecodebin在執行時才會確定產生多少個pad,這種pad稱為Sometimes Pads,而固定不變的pad稱為Always Pads

第三中Pad稱為Request Pad,是有需要的時候才建立。在tee裡面就有Request Pad。你必須主動建立才會產生Request PadRequest Pad沒辦法自動連接,必須手動連接。

另外如果在PLAYINGPAUSED的時候建立或是釋放Request Pad要特別小心,因為有時候會造成(Pad blocking)。通常在NULLREADY狀態的時候建立或釋放比較安全。

範例

basic-tutorial-7.c

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#include <gst/gst.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
GstElement *pipeline, *audio_source, *tee, *audio_queue, *audio_convert, *audio_resample, *audio_sink;
GstElement *video_queue, *visual, *video_convert, *video_sink;
GstBus *bus;
GstMessage *msg;
GstPad *tee_audio_pad, *tee_video_pad;
GstPad *queue_audio_pad, *queue_video_pad;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the elements */
audio_source = gst_element_factory_make ("audiotestsrc", "audio_source");
tee = gst_element_factory_make ("tee", "tee");
audio_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "audio_queue");
audio_convert = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "audio_convert");
audio_resample = gst_element_factory_make ("audioresample", "audio_resample");
audio_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autoaudiosink", "audio_sink");
video_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "video_queue");
visual = gst_element_factory_make ("wavescope", "visual");
video_convert = gst_element_factory_make ("videoconvert", "csp");
video_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autovideosink", "video_sink");

/* Create the empty pipeline */
pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!pipeline || !audio_source || !tee || !audio_queue || !audio_convert || !audio_resample || !audio_sink ||
!video_queue || !visual || !video_convert || !video_sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Configure elements */
g_object_set (audio_source, "freq", 215.0f, NULL);
g_object_set (visual, "shader", 0, "style", 1, NULL);

/* Link all elements that can be automatically linked because they have "Always" pads */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), audio_source, tee, audio_queue, audio_convert, audio_resample, audio_sink,
video_queue, visual, video_convert, video_sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link_many (audio_source, tee, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (audio_queue, audio_convert, audio_resample, audio_sink, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (video_queue, visual, video_convert, video_sink, NULL) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Manually link the Tee, which has "Request" pads */
tee_audio_pad = gst_element_get_request_pad (tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for audio branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_audio_pad));
queue_audio_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (audio_queue, "sink");
tee_video_pad = gst_element_get_request_pad (tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for video branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_video_pad));
queue_video_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (video_queue, "sink");
if (gst_pad_link (tee_audio_pad, queue_audio_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK ||
gst_pad_link (tee_video_pad, queue_video_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK) {
g_printerr ("Tee could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}
gst_object_unref (queue_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (queue_video_pad);

/* Start playing the pipeline */
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);

/* Wait until error or EOS */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);
msg = gst_bus_timed_pop_filtered (bus, GST_CLOCK_TIME_NONE, GST_MESSAGE_ERROR | GST_MESSAGE_EOS);

/* Release the request pads from the Tee, and unref them */
gst_element_release_request_pad (tee, tee_audio_pad);
gst_element_release_request_pad (tee, tee_video_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_video_pad);

/* Free resources */
if (msg != NULL)
gst_message_unref (msg);
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);

gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return 0;
}

初始化element

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/* Create the elements */
audio_source = gst_element_factory_make ("audiotestsrc", "audio_source");
tee = gst_element_factory_make ("tee", "tee");
audio_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "audio_queue");
audio_convert = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "audio_convert");
audio_resample = gst_element_factory_make ("audioresample", "audio_resample");
audio_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autoaudiosink", "audio_sink");
video_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "video_queue");
visual = gst_element_factory_make ("wavescope", "visual");
video_convert = gst_element_factory_make ("videoconvert", "video_convert");
video_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autovideosink", "video_sink");

調整element

為了範例需求,微調屬性

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/* Configure elements */
g_object_set (audio_source, "freq", 215.0f, NULL);
g_object_set (visual, "shader", 0, "style", 1, NULL);

將element放進pipeline

將所有element放入pipeline並且連接所有Always Pads

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/* Link all elements that can be automatically linked because they have "Always" pads */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (pipeline), audio_source, tee, audio_queue, audio_convert, audio_sink,
video_queue, visual, video_convert, video_sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link_many (audio_source, tee, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (audio_queue, audio_convert, audio_sink, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (video_queue, visual, video_convert, video_sink, NULL) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}

注意:
gst_element_link_many()其實也可以自動連接Request Pads。因為它會自動請求新的pad。但是問題是你還是必須要手動釋放Request Pads。所以最好的做法是手動連接Request Pads

連接Request Pads

要連接Request Pads必須要先跟element請求,而因為element有時候可以產生不同的request pads,所以要提供所需的Pad Template名稱。

在tee的文件中可以看到他有兩個Pad Template,一個是”sink”,另一個是”src_%u”(也就是Request pads),我們可以用gst_element_request_pad_simple()函式來請求兩個Pads(一個給audio一個給video)。

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Pad Templates:
SRC template: 'src_%u'
Availability: On request
Capabilities:
ANY

SINK template: 'sink'
Availability: Always
Capabilities:
ANY

接著我們需要取得下游queue element的Always pad,因此用gst_element_get_static_pad()

我們用gst_pad_link()連接Pads。gst_pad_link()內部其實就是gst_element_link()gst_element_link_many()

我們用來儲存下游queue always pad的變數queue_audio_padqueue_video_pad要記得釋放,以免佔用reference count。

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/* Manually link the Tee, which has "Request" pads */
tee_audio_pad = gst_element_get_request_pad (tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for audio branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_audio_pad));
queue_audio_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (audio_queue, "sink");
tee_video_pad = gst_element_get_request_pad (tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for video branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_video_pad));
queue_video_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (video_queue, "sink");
if (gst_pad_link (tee_audio_pad, queue_audio_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK ||
gst_pad_link (tee_video_pad, queue_video_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK) {
g_printerr ("Tee could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
}
gst_object_unref (queue_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (queue_video_pad);

最後在程式結束後,要記得釋放request pad

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/* Release the request pads from the Tee, and unref them */
gst_element_release_request_pad (tee, tee_audio_pad);
gst_element_release_request_pad (tee, tee_video_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_video_pad);

gst_element_release_request_pad()從tee釋放requests pads,gst_object_unref釋放tee_audio_pad變數

hort-cutting the pipeline Goal

pipeline的資料並不是封閉的,我們可以從外界注入資料給pipeline,也可以從pipeline內取得資料

appsrc、appsink

把資料注入pipeline的element為appsrc,相反的從pipeline取得資料的element是appsink。這裡sink和source的概念是從GStreamer應用程式的角度來看,你可以想像appsrc也是一個source,只不過他的資料來源是來自於應用程式,相反的appsink就像普通的sink只是他最後流向應用程式。

appsrc有多種模式,在pull模式每當需要的時候他將會向應用程式索取資料。在push模式則是應用程式主動推送資料進去。在push模式中應用程式還可以阻塞push function當已經推入足夠多的資料到pipeline裡面的時候,或者他可以監聽enough-dataneed-data訊號。

Buffers

數據以Chunks方式進入pipeline的方式稱為Buffers,Buffers代表一單位的資料,但是每一個Buffers大小不一定一樣大。注意,我們不應該假設一個Buffers進入element就同時會有一個離開element。element可以隨意地讓Buffers停留在element內部。

Source pad產生Buffers,而sink pad接收Buffers,Gstreamer將這些Buffers一流過每一個element。

GstBuffer 和 GstMemory

GstBuffers 可能包含一個或一個以上的memory buffer,而真正的記憶體buffer被抽像化為GstMemory,因此一個GstBuffer可以包含一個或一個以上的GstMemory

每一個buffer都有時間戳和長度,以及他需要被decode的長度。

範例

下面範例延續Multithreading and Pad Availability的範例並擴展。

首先audiotestsrc被置換成appsrc來產生audio資料。

第二個是增加一個新的tee分支,這隻分支會接著appsinkappsink會將資訊回傳給應用程式。

範例basic-tutorial-8.c的程式如下

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#include <gst/gst.h>
#include <gst/audio/audio.h>
#include <string.h>

#define CHUNK_SIZE 1024 /* Amount of bytes we are sending in each buffer */
#define SAMPLE_RATE 44100 /* Samples per second we are sending */

/* Structure to contain all our information, so we can pass it to callbacks */
typedef struct _CustomData {
GstElement *pipeline, *app_source, *tee, *audio_queue, *audio_convert1, *audio_resample, *audio_sink;
GstElement *video_queue, *audio_convert2, *visual, *video_convert, *video_sink;
GstElement *app_queue, *app_sink;

guint64 num_samples; /* Number of samples generated so far (for timestamp generation) */
gfloat a, b, c, d; /* For waveform generation */

guint sourceid; /* To control the GSource */

GMainLoop *main_loop; /* GLib's Main Loop */
} CustomData;

/* This method is called by the idle GSource in the mainloop, to feed CHUNK_SIZE bytes into appsrc.
* The idle handler is added to the mainloop when appsrc requests us to start sending data (need-data signal)
* and is removed when appsrc has enough data (enough-data signal).
*/
static gboolean push_data (CustomData *data) {
GstBuffer *buffer;
GstFlowReturn ret;
int i;
GstMapInfo map;
gint16 *raw;
gint num_samples = CHUNK_SIZE / 2; /* Because each sample is 16 bits */
gfloat freq;

/* Create a new empty buffer */
buffer = gst_buffer_new_and_alloc (CHUNK_SIZE);

/* Set its timestamp and duration */
GST_BUFFER_TIMESTAMP (buffer) = gst_util_uint64_scale (data->num_samples, GST_SECOND, SAMPLE_RATE);
GST_BUFFER_DURATION (buffer) = gst_util_uint64_scale (num_samples, GST_SECOND, SAMPLE_RATE);

/* Generate some psychodelic waveforms */
gst_buffer_map (buffer, &map, GST_MAP_WRITE);
raw = (gint16 *)map.data;
data->c += data->d;
data->d -= data->c / 1000;
freq = 1100 + 1000 * data->d;
for (i = 0; i < num_samples; i++) {
data->a += data->b;
data->b -= data->a / freq;
raw[i] = (gint16)(500 * data->a);
}
gst_buffer_unmap (buffer, &map);
data->num_samples += num_samples;

/* Push the buffer into the appsrc */
g_signal_emit_by_name (data->app_source, "push-buffer", buffer, &ret);

/* Free the buffer now that we are done with it */
gst_buffer_unref (buffer);

if (ret != GST_FLOW_OK) {
/* We got some error, stop sending data */
return FALSE;
}

return TRUE;
}

/* This signal callback triggers when appsrc needs data. Here, we add an idle handler
* to the mainloop to start pushing data into the appsrc */
static void start_feed (GstElement *source, guint size, CustomData *data) {
if (data->sourceid == 0) {
g_print ("Start feeding\n");
data->sourceid = g_idle_add ((GSourceFunc) push_data, data);
}
}

/* This callback triggers when appsrc has enough data and we can stop sending.
* We remove the idle handler from the mainloop */
static void stop_feed (GstElement *source, CustomData *data) {
if (data->sourceid != 0) {
g_print ("Stop feeding\n");
g_source_remove (data->sourceid);
data->sourceid = 0;
}
}

/* The appsink has received a buffer */
static GstFlowReturn new_sample (GstElement *sink, CustomData *data) {
GstSample *sample;

/* Retrieve the buffer */
g_signal_emit_by_name (sink, "pull-sample", &sample);
if (sample) {
/* The only thing we do in this example is print a * to indicate a received buffer */
g_print ("*");
gst_sample_unref (sample);
return GST_FLOW_OK;
}

return GST_FLOW_ERROR;
}

/* This function is called when an error message is posted on the bus */
static void error_cb (GstBus *bus, GstMessage *msg, CustomData *data) {
GError *err;
gchar *debug_info;

/* Print error details on the screen */
gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug_info);
g_printerr ("Error received from element %s: %s\n", GST_OBJECT_NAME (msg->src), err->message);
g_printerr ("Debugging information: %s\n", debug_info ? debug_info : "none");
g_clear_error (&err);
g_free (debug_info);

g_main_loop_quit (data->main_loop);
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
CustomData data;
GstPad *tee_audio_pad, *tee_video_pad, *tee_app_pad;
GstPad *queue_audio_pad, *queue_video_pad, *queue_app_pad;
GstAudioInfo info;
GstCaps *audio_caps;
GstBus *bus;

/* Initialize custom data structure */
memset (&data, 0, sizeof (data));
data.b = 1; /* For waveform generation */
data.d = 1;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Create the elements */
data.app_source = gst_element_factory_make ("appsrc", "audio_source");
data.tee = gst_element_factory_make ("tee", "tee");
data.audio_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "audio_queue");
data.audio_convert1 = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "audio_convert1");
data.audio_resample = gst_element_factory_make ("audioresample", "audio_resample");
data.audio_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autoaudiosink", "audio_sink");
data.video_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "video_queue");
data.audio_convert2 = gst_element_factory_make ("audioconvert", "audio_convert2");
data.visual = gst_element_factory_make ("wavescope", "visual");
data.video_convert = gst_element_factory_make ("videoconvert", "video_convert");
data.video_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("autovideosink", "video_sink");
data.app_queue = gst_element_factory_make ("queue", "app_queue");
data.app_sink = gst_element_factory_make ("appsink", "app_sink");

/* Create the empty pipeline */
data.pipeline = gst_pipeline_new ("test-pipeline");

if (!data.pipeline || !data.app_source || !data.tee || !data.audio_queue || !data.audio_convert1 ||
!data.audio_resample || !data.audio_sink || !data.video_queue || !data.audio_convert2 || !data.visual ||
!data.video_convert || !data.video_sink || !data.app_queue || !data.app_sink) {
g_printerr ("Not all elements could be created.\n");
return -1;
}

/* Configure wavescope */
g_object_set (data.visual, "shader", 0, "style", 0, NULL);

/* Configure appsrc */
gst_audio_info_set_format (&info, GST_AUDIO_FORMAT_S16, SAMPLE_RATE, 1, NULL);
audio_caps = gst_audio_info_to_caps (&info);
g_object_set (data.app_source, "caps", audio_caps, "format", GST_FORMAT_TIME, NULL);
g_signal_connect (data.app_source, "need-data", G_CALLBACK (start_feed), &data);
g_signal_connect (data.app_source, "enough-data", G_CALLBACK (stop_feed), &data);

/* Configure appsink */
g_object_set (data.app_sink, "emit-signals", TRUE, "caps", audio_caps, NULL);
g_signal_connect (data.app_sink, "new-sample", G_CALLBACK (new_sample), &data);
gst_caps_unref (audio_caps);

/* Link all elements that can be automatically linked because they have "Always" pads */
gst_bin_add_many (GST_BIN (data.pipeline), data.app_source, data.tee, data.audio_queue, data.audio_convert1, data.audio_resample,
data.audio_sink, data.video_queue, data.audio_convert2, data.visual, data.video_convert, data.video_sink, data.app_queue,
data.app_sink, NULL);
if (gst_element_link_many (data.app_source, data.tee, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (data.audio_queue, data.audio_convert1, data.audio_resample, data.audio_sink, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (data.video_queue, data.audio_convert2, data.visual, data.video_convert, data.video_sink, NULL) != TRUE ||
gst_element_link_many (data.app_queue, data.app_sink, NULL) != TRUE) {
g_printerr ("Elements could not be linked.\n");
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return -1;
}

/* Manually link the Tee, which has "Request" pads */
tee_audio_pad = gst_element_request_pad_simple (data.tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for audio branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_audio_pad));
queue_audio_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (data.audio_queue, "sink");
tee_video_pad = gst_element_request_pad_simple (data.tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for video branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_video_pad));
queue_video_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (data.video_queue, "sink");
tee_app_pad = gst_element_request_pad_simple (data.tee, "src_%u");
g_print ("Obtained request pad %s for app branch.\n", gst_pad_get_name (tee_app_pad));
queue_app_pad = gst_element_get_static_pad (data.app_queue, "sink");
if (gst_pad_link (tee_audio_pad, queue_audio_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK ||
gst_pad_link (tee_video_pad, queue_video_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK ||
gst_pad_link (tee_app_pad, queue_app_pad) != GST_PAD_LINK_OK) {
g_printerr ("Tee could not be linked\n");
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return -1;
}
gst_object_unref (queue_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (queue_video_pad);
gst_object_unref (queue_app_pad);

/* Instruct the bus to emit signals for each received message, and connect to the interesting signals */
bus = gst_element_get_bus (data.pipeline);
gst_bus_add_signal_watch (bus);
g_signal_connect (G_OBJECT (bus), "message::error", (GCallback)error_cb, &data);
gst_object_unref (bus);

/* Start playing the pipeline */
gst_element_set_state (data.pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);

/* Create a GLib Main Loop and set it to run */
data.main_loop = g_main_loop_new (NULL, FALSE);
g_main_loop_run (data.main_loop);

/* Release the request pads from the Tee, and unref them */
gst_element_release_request_pad (data.tee, tee_audio_pad);
gst_element_release_request_pad (data.tee, tee_video_pad);
gst_element_release_request_pad (data.tee, tee_app_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_audio_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_video_pad);
gst_object_unref (tee_app_pad);

/* Free resources */
gst_element_set_state (data.pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (data.pipeline);
return 0;
}

加入appsrc和appsink

首先要先設定appsrc的caps,他決定了appsrc所輸出的資料類型。我們可以用字串來建立GstCaps物件,只需要用gst_caps_from_string()函式。

另外我們還必須連接need-dataenough-data訊號。這兩個訊號是appsrc發出來的。

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/* Configure appsrc */
gst_audio_info_set_format (&info, GST_AUDIO_FORMAT_S16, SAMPLE_RATE, 1, NULL);
audio_caps = gst_audio_info_to_caps (&info);
g_object_set (data.app_source, "caps", audio_caps, NULL);
g_signal_connect (data.app_source, "need-data", G_CALLBACK (start_feed), &data);
g_signal_connect (data.app_source, "enough-data", G_CALLBACK (stop_feed), &data);

new-sample訊號

另外我們還要接上app_sink的訊號new-sample,這個訊號預設是關閉的所以必須手動打開這個訊號,由emit-signals可以設定。

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/* Configure appsink */
g_object_set (data.app_sink, "emit-signals", TRUE, "caps", audio_caps, NULL);
g_signal_connect (data.app_sink, "new-sample", G_CALLBACK (new_sample), &data);
gst_caps_unref (audio_caps);

callback function

我們的callback function在每當appsrc內部的queue快要沒資料的時候被呼叫。他唯一做的事情就是註冊一個GLib的函式g_idle_add(),他將會給appsrc資料直到appsrc滿了為止。

Glib的main event loop更進一步說明可以參考這裡

我們將g_idle_add()回傳的id做個紀錄以便等一下可以停止他。

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/* This signal callback triggers when appsrc needs data. Here, we add an idle handler
* to the mainloop to start pushing data into the appsrc */
static void start_feed (GstElement *source, guint size, CustomData *data) {
if (data->sourceid == 0) {
g_print ("Start feeding\n");
data->sourceid = g_idle_add ((GSourceFunc) push_data, data);
}
}

下面這個callback function當appsrc內部的queue滿的時候會被呼叫。在這裡我們就直接用g_source_remove()移除idle function

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/* This callback triggers when appsrc has enough data and we can stop sending.
* We remove the idle handler from the mainloop */
static void stop_feed (GstElement *source, CustomData *data) {
if (data->sourceid != 0) {
g_print ("Stop feeding\n");
g_source_remove (data->sourceid);
data->sourceid = 0;
}
}

接下來這個function是推送資料給appsrc的callback,是給GLib的g_idle_add()呼叫用的。

首先他的工作是建立一個新的buffer並且給定大小(這個範例設為1024 bytes),設定大小可以用gst_buffer_new_and_alloc()

接下例我們計算我們已經餵給appsrc的資料數目,並且用CustomData.num_samples紀錄,如此一來就可以給這個buffer時間戳,時皆戳可以用GstBufferGST_BUFFER_TIMESTAMP marco。

因為我們每次都提供相同大小的buffer,他的長度都是相同的,我們可以用GstBufferGST_BUFFER_DURATIONmarco來設定duration。

gst_util_uint64_scale()是用來放大或縮小大數字的函式,用這個函是就不用擔心overflows。

buffer的大小可以用GstBuffer 可以用GST_BUFFER_DATA 取得。

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/* This method is called by the idle GSource in the mainloop, to feed CHUNK_SIZE bytes into appsrc.
* The ide handler is added to the mainloop when appsrc requests us to start sending data (need-data signal)
* and is removed when appsrc has enough data (enough-data signal).
*/
static gboolean push_data (CustomData *data) {
GstBuffer *buffer;
GstFlowReturn ret;
int i;
gint16 *raw;
gint num_samples = CHUNK_SIZE / 2; /* Because each sample is 16 bits */
gfloat freq;

/* Create a new empty buffer */
buffer = gst_buffer_new_and_alloc (CHUNK_SIZE);

/* Set its timestamp and duration */
GST_BUFFER_TIMESTAMP (buffer) = gst_util_uint64_scale (data->num_samples, GST_SECOND, SAMPLE_RATE);
GST_BUFFER_DURATION (buffer) = gst_util_uint64_scale (num_samples, GST_SECOND, SAMPLE_RATE);

/* Generate some psychodelic waveforms */
raw = (gint16 *)GST_BUFFER_DATA (buffer);

最後就是把生成好的資料推送進appsrc裡面,並且會觸發push-buffer訊號。

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/* Push the buffer into the appsrc */
g_signal_emit_by_name (data->app_source, "push-buffer", buffer, &ret);

/* Free the buffer now that we are done with it */
gst_buffer_unref (buffer);

而當appsink接收到資料的時候下面的函式會被呼叫。我們用pull-sample動作訊號來取得buffer並且應到螢幕上。利用GST_BUFFER_DATA取得資料的指針以及GST_BUFFER_SIZE取得資料大小。

注意,在這裡的buffer不一定會跟我們在前面指定的buffer大小一樣,因為任何element都有可能去更動buffer,雖然在這個範例buffer並沒有被改動。

Debugging tools

debug log

debug log是由GST_DEBUG環境變數控制。下面是GST_DEBUG=2的時候的debug log。

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0:00:00.868050000  1592   09F62420 WARN                 filesrc gstfilesrc.c:1044:gst_file_src_start:<filesrc0> error: No such file "non-existing-file.webm"

通常我們不會把debug log全部打開以免訊息塞爆文件或是訊息視窗。下面是各種等級的debug log會輸出的資料。

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| # | Name    | Description                                                    |
|---|---------|----------------------------------------------------------------|
| 0 | none | No debug information is output. |
| 1 | ERROR | Logs all fatal errors. These are errors that do not allow the |
| | | core or elements to perform the requested action. The |
| | | application can still recover if programmed to handle the |
| | | conditions that triggered the error. |
| 2 | WARNING | Logs all warnings. Typically these are non-fatal, but |
| | | user-visible problems are expected to happen. |
| 3 | FIXME | Logs all "fixme" messages. Those typically that a codepath that|
| | | is known to be incomplete has been triggered. It may work in |
| | | most cases, but may cause problems in specific instances. |
| 4 | INFO | Logs all informational messages. These are typically used for |
| | | events in the system that only happen once, or are important |
| | | and rare enough to be logged at this level. |
| 5 | DEBUG | Logs all debug messages. These are general debug messages for |
| | | events that happen only a limited number of times during an |
| | | object's lifetime; these include setup, teardown, change of |
| | | parameters, etc. |
| 6 | LOG | Logs all log messages. These are messages for events that |
| | | happen repeatedly during an object's lifetime; these include |
| | | streaming and steady-state conditions. This is used for log |
| | | messages that happen on every buffer in an element for example.|
| 7 | TRACE | Logs all trace messages. Those are message that happen very |
| | | very often. This is for example is each time the reference |
| | | count of a GstMiniObject, such as a GstBuffer or GstEvent, is |
| | | modified. |
| 9 | MEMDUMP | Logs all memory dump messages. This is the heaviest logging and|
| | | may include dumping the content of blocks of memory. |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

設置element的debug log

如果要設置個別element的debug level,範例如下。如此一來audiotestsrc的level是6,其他的都是2

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GST_DEBUG=2,audiotestsrc:6

GST_DEBUG格是

GST_DEBUG的第一個參數是optional的,他會設定全域的debug level。參數之間以逗號,區隔,除了第一個參數,每一個設定的格式都是category:level

*也可以被用在GST_DEBUG裡面,例如GST_DEBUG=2,audio*:6會把所有開頭為audio的element都設為level 6,其他保持level 2。

增加自訂除錯訊息

如果要讓category 看起來更有意義,可以加入下面兩行

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GST_DEBUG_CATEGORY_STATIC (my_category);
#define GST_CAT_DEFAULT my_category

以及下面這行在gst_init()被呼叫之後。

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GST_DEBUG_CATEGORY_INIT (my_category, "my category", 0, "This is my very own");

取得pipeline的圖

gstreamer可以將你的pipeline輸出成.dot檔可以用例如GraphViz來開啟。

如果在程式內想開啟這項功能可以用GST_DEBUG_BIN_TO_DOT_FILE()GST_DEBUG_BIN_TO_DOT_FILE_WITH_TS()marco來開啟這個功能。
範例:
可以在程式中加入下面程式碼來儲存pipeline圖
官方文件
圖案參數
參考來源

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GST_DEBUG_BIN_TO_DOT_FILE(pipeline, GST_DEBUG_GRAPH_SHOW_ALL, "pipeline"); //三個參數分別為 pipeline的instance, 圖案參數, 檔案名稱

這行程式記得加在將pipeline state設定為playing之前,這樣才能完整看到pipeline的樣子。

然後執行程式之前先設定環境變數GST_DEBUG_DUMP_DOT_DIR來指定儲存位置

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export GST_DEBUG_DUMP_DOT_DIR=./tracing/
mkdir tracing

接下來就會在tracing看到pipeline.dot

安裝xdot來讀取.dot檔

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sudo apt install xdot
xdot pipeline.dot

gst-launch-1.0可以用用GST_DEBUG_DUMP_DOT_DIR來設定儲存圖片的資料夾並開啟這項功能。每當pipeline的狀態改變的時候都會畫一張圖,如此一來就可以看到pipeline的變化

gst-debugger

遠端除錯gstreamer

安裝protoc
http://google.github.io/proto-lens/installing-protoc.html

Streaming

這裡將介紹streaming要注意的點

  • 開啟buffering
  • 斷線重連
    通常網路串流會因為網路連線的關係造成串流封包沒有準時到達而造成跨面卡住。而這個問題的解法就是使用bufferbuffer讓一些影音chunks儲存在queue裡面,如此一來雖然剛開始影片會稍微延遲一點,但是如果網路連線不穩的話話面不會卡住,因為queue裡面還有chunks。

clock

應用程式應該隨時監看buffer的狀態,如果buffer太少,就應該暫停撥放。為了達到所有的sink都可以同步,GStreamer有一個global clock,所有的element都會共用這個global clock。
有時候如果切換streaming或是切換輸出裝置,clock會消失,這時候就必須重選clock,下面的範例將會解說這個步驟。

當clock消失的時候應用程式會接收到訊息,這時候只需要將pipeline設為PAUSED再設為PLAYING就可以選擇新的clock。

範例

範例basic-tutorial-12.c

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#include <gst/gst.h>
#include <string.h>

typedef struct _CustomData {
gboolean is_live;
GstElement *pipeline;
GMainLoop *loop;
} CustomData;

static void cb_message (GstBus *bus, GstMessage *msg, CustomData *data) {

switch (GST_MESSAGE_TYPE (msg)) {
case GST_MESSAGE_ERROR: {
GError *err;
gchar *debug;

gst_message_parse_error (msg, &err, &debug);
g_print ("Error: %s\n", err->message);
g_error_free (err);
g_free (debug);

gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_READY);
g_main_loop_quit (data->loop);
break;
}
case GST_MESSAGE_EOS:
/* end-of-stream */
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_READY);
g_main_loop_quit (data->loop);
break;
case GST_MESSAGE_BUFFERING: {
gint percent = 0;

/* If the stream is live, we do not care about buffering. */
if (data->is_live) break;

gst_message_parse_buffering (msg, &percent);
g_print ("Buffering (%3d%%)\r", percent);
/* Wait until buffering is complete before start/resume playing */
if (percent < 100)
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PAUSED);
else
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
break;
}
case GST_MESSAGE_CLOCK_LOST:
/* Get a new clock */
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PAUSED);
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
break;
default:
/* Unhandled message */
break;
}
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
GstElement *pipeline;
GstBus *bus;
GstStateChangeReturn ret;
GMainLoop *main_loop;
CustomData data;

/* Initialize GStreamer */
gst_init (&argc, &argv);

/* Initialize our data structure */
memset (&data, 0, sizeof (data));

/* Build the pipeline */
pipeline = gst_parse_launch ("playbin uri=https://www.freedesktop.org/software/gstreamer-sdk/data/media/sintel_trailer-480p.webm", NULL);
bus = gst_element_get_bus (pipeline);

/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
} else if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_NO_PREROLL) {
data.is_live = TRUE;
}

main_loop = g_main_loop_new (NULL, FALSE);
data.loop = main_loop;
data.pipeline = pipeline;

gst_bus_add_signal_watch (bus);
g_signal_connect (bus, "message", G_CALLBACK (cb_message), &data);

g_main_loop_run (main_loop);

/* Free resources */
g_main_loop_unref (main_loop);
gst_object_unref (bus);
gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_NULL);
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return 0;
}

說明

在這個範例中比較特別的是下面這一段,注意如果收到GST_STATE_CHANGE_NO_PREROLL而不是GST_STATE_CHANGE_SUCCESS,這代表目前正再撥放直撥串流。

因為直撥串流是不能暫停的,所以就算把pipeline的狀態設為PAUSED他的行為還是跟PLAYING一樣。而且即使我們嘗試將pipeline設為PLAYING也會收到這個訊息。

因為我們想要關閉直撥串流的buffering,所以我們用gst_element_set_state()在data裡面做記號

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/* Start playing */
ret = gst_element_set_state (pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_FAILURE) {
g_printerr ("Unable to set the pipeline to the playing state.\n");
gst_object_unref (pipeline);
return -1;
} else if (ret == GST_STATE_CHANGE_NO_PREROLL) {
data.is_live = TRUE;
}

callback

接下來我們看一下message parsing callback,首先如果發現是直撥串流,就不要打開buffering。接下來用gst_message_parse_buffering()來取得 buffering level。

然後我們印出 buffering level並且設定當 buffering level小於100%的時候就暫停pipeline,如果超過就設為PLAYING。

程式執行的時候會看到buffer慢慢攀升到100%,然後如果網路不穩到buffer小於100%,就會暫停撥放直到回復100%後才重新撥放。

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case GST_MESSAGE_BUFFERING: {
gint percent = 0;

/* If the stream is live, we do not care about buffering. */
if (data->is_live) break;

gst_message_parse_buffering (msg, &percent);
g_print ("Buffering (%3d%%)\r", percent);
/* Wait until buffering is complete before start/resume playing */
if (percent < 100)
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PAUSED);
else
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
break;
}

lost clock

另一個我們要處理的消息是遺失clock,我們只需要將pipeline設為PAUSED再設為PLAYING就可以了。

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case GST_MESSAGE_CLOCK_LOST:
/* Get a new clock */
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PAUSED);
gst_element_set_state (data->pipeline, GST_STATE_PLAYING);
break;

DeepStream動態增減串流

本篇文章參考:
https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/managing-video-streams-in-runtime-with-the-deepstream-sdk/
https://github.com/NVIDIA-AI-IOT/deepstream_reference_apps/tree/master/runtime_source_add_delete

Glib定時執行函式

為了到動態增減串流,必須在main thread之外有一個thread定期的察看目前串流的表。Glib提供了g_timeout_add_seconds這個函式讓我們可以定期呼叫函式。g_timeout_add_seconds可以讓我們設定每間隔多少時間呼叫一次函數。

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guint g_timeout_add_seconds (guint interval, GSourceFunc function, gpointer data)

g_timeout_add_seconds有三個參數分別是
Interval: 每間隔多少秒呼叫函數一次
function: 要被呼叫的函式
data: 要傳送給函式的參數

在我們動態增減的範例中,我們可以寫一個watchDog函式來讀去資料庫目前有無需要新增或刪減串流。

Linux 核心設計實作摘要

C語言

指標理解

C Traps and Pitfalls 的 “Understanding Declarations”小節提到如何解讀指標。每一個C的變數宣告可以拆成兩個部分。

  1. 型態
  2. 一串將會回傳這個型態的表達式

float f, g;代表f, g將會回傳float
float ff();代表ff()將會回傳float,因此ff是一個function並且會回傳float
float *pf;代表*pf江會回傳float,因此pf是一個pointer
float *g(), (*h)();首先()的優先度大於*因此*g() 可以改寫成*(g()),由此可知g是function並且會回傳一個pointer to a float的指標。而(*h)()代表h是一個pointer to a function指標,而且這個function會回傳float。


知道如何宣告變數後就可以寫出,就可以知道如何寫出這個類型強制轉型的寫法,只需要把變數名稱和分號移除,最後再加上括號
float *g();在這裡的g是一個回傳pointer的function,這個pointer指向float。而g強制轉型的寫法即為(float *())

Byte和Bit

1 Byte = 8 Bits

指標運算符號

  1. Address-of operator
    &稱為 Address-of operator

  2. Dereference operator
    *稱為 Dereference operator
    將pointer所指向的值給另一個變數(This is called a “load” operation.)

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    int bar = *foo_ptr;

    將值儲存到pointer所指的位置(This is called a “store” operation.)

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    *foo_ptr = 42; Sets foo to 42

->操作符

定義一個struct foo和一個foo的指針foo_ptr

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struct foo {
size_t size;
char name[64];
int answer_to_ultimate_question;
unsigned shoe_size;
};

如果要查看foo_ptr所指向的內容,可以用

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(*foo_ptr).size = new_size;

或者是用->操作符

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foo_ptr->size = new_size;

陣列Array

宣告陣列

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int array[] = { 45, 67, 89 };

在C語言,你宣告了一個陣列array之後,當你使用的時候,array這個變數其實是一個指向這個陣列第一個元素的指針,我們把這個行為稱為decaying,因為陣列被decays成指針了。不過他還是和針的指針有一點不同,其中就是如果用sizeof(array)來看陣列的話,回傳的將會是陣列的總長度(在這個範例就是(sizeof(int) = 4) × 3 = 12)而不是單一個指針的長度。
下面這三種狀況對陣列來說都是一樣的

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array == &array == &array[0]

他們分別代表“array”, “pointer to array”, 和 “pointer to the first element of array”,但在C這三個東西是一樣的

陣列++

對於一般變數來說variable += 1代表對變數+1,但是對於指標來說代表對目前指標的位置加上資料型態的大小。以我們上一個例子來說我們的陣列儲存的是int,而array被decays成pointer了,所以array + 1就是加上sizeof(int),等同於我們把指針移動到下一個元素。

Indexing

首先看一下以下例子

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int array[] = { 45, 67, 89 };
int *array_ptr = &array[1];
printf("%i\n", array_ptr[1]);

這段程式宣告的一個三個元素的陣列array,還有一個int指針array_ptr,可以用下面這張圖可以看到array[1]array_ptr[0]指向同一個記憶體。
image info{: w=”700” h=”200” }
我們可以看到其實[]是指針的操作符,array[1]等同於*(array + 1)

參考:
Everything you need to know about pointers in C
https://boredzo.org/pointers/

GDB除錯Python C extension

測試範例

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#include <Python.h>

static PyObject *method_myadd(PyObject *self, PyObject *args){
int x, y, z = -1;

/* Parse arguments */
if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ii", &x, &y)){
return NULL;
}

/* The actual bit of code I need */
z = x + y;

return PyLong_FromLong(z);
}

static PyMethodDef myaddMethods[] = {
{"myadd", method_myadd, METH_VARARGS, "Python interface for myadd C library function"},
{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
};

static struct PyModuleDef myaddmodule = {
PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
"myadd",
"Python interface for the myadd C library function",
-1,
myaddMethods
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_myadd(void) {
return PyModule_Create(&myaddmodule);
}

{: file=’myadd.cpp’}

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import myadd

print("going to ADD SOME NUMBERS")

x = myadd.myadd(5,6)

print(x)

{: file=’myscript.py’}

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from distutils.core import setup, Extension

def main():
setup(name="myadd",
version="1.0.0",
description="Python interface for the myadd C library function",
author="Nadiah",
author_email="nadiah@nadiah.org",
ext_modules=[Extension("myadd", ["myadd.cpp"])],
)


if __name__ == "__main__":
main()

{: file=’setup.py’}

安裝GCC

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sudo apt-get install build-essential

安裝python標頭檔

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apt-get install python3-dev

安裝venv

最好要使用venv來開發c extension,因為如果沒有使用venv,python3 setup.py install編譯好的套件

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apt install python3-venv

編譯範例程式

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python3 setup.py install

安裝Python debug symbol

下面指令python的版本可以改成你自己的python版本

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apt-get install python3.10-dbg

以GDB執行Python

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gdb python

注意!!必須先正確安裝Python的debug symbol再執行這一步,完成後你應該要可以看到成功載入Python debug symbol,gdb的顯示類似如下

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GNU gdb (Ubuntu 12.1-0ubuntu1~22.04) 12.1
Copyright (C) 2022 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
License GPLv3+: GNU GPL version 3 or later <http://gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html>
.....
For help, type "help".
Type "apropos word" to search for commands related to "word"...
Reading symbols from python...
Reading symbols from /usr/lib/debug/.build-id/75/c83caa11a9418b8e5ae8feb0bb8f2e5d00c47b.debug...

如果你看到(No debugging symbols found in python)表示GDB找不到Python debug symbols。

GDB下中斷點

這一步會預先建立一個中斷點,引為此時我們的extension還沒被Python載入。再這個範例我們把中斷點下在myadd.cpp第12行z = x + y的位置

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(gdb)b myadd.cpp:12

這時候GDB會問你是不是要建立一個未來使用的中斷點,回答是就可以

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(gdb) b myadd.cpp:12
No source file named myadd.cpp.
Make breakpoint pending on future shared library load? (y or [n])

Python呼叫extension

最後在GDB裡面執行myscript.py程式,就可以看到程式停在我們的中斷點

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(gdb) run myscript.py

debug Python 好用的指令

參考:

編譯教學
https://uwpce-pythoncert.github.io/Py300/notes/BuildingExtensions.html

安裝debug symbol
https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb

gdb除錯參考:
https://scipy-lectures.org/advanced/debugging/index.html#debugging-segmentation-faults-using-gdb

加入gdb路徑
https://devguide.python.org/advanced-tools/gdb/index.html#gdb-7-and-later

範例程式
https://nadiah.org/2020/03/01/example-debug-mixed-python-c-in-visual-studio-code/

除錯
https://developers.redhat.com/articles/2021/09/08/debugging-python-c-extensions-gdb#python_commands_in_gdb

統計學課本重點摘要

CH1統計學基本元素

Population, Sample, Experimental unit

statistics element

Variable

Variable

Measurement

Measurement

Inferenital Statistical Problem最大的重點,計算reliability

Inferenital Statistical Problem

Quantitative data和Qualitative data

Quantitative data: 可以測量的資料,例如高度、溫度
Qualitative data:無法測量的資料,例如滿意度、車子種類,為了方便計算可以給予數值,但數值本身沒有任何意義,只是一個代號

Representative sample

representative sample的特遮會和母體的特徵一樣。

CH2 描述一組資料

資料集

data set: $$x_1, x_2, x_3, \cdots , x_n$$,每個元素都是一個量測結果。
例如我們量測5個商品的長度,並且記錄結果為$$x_1=5, x_2=3, x_3=8, x_4=5, x_5=4$$

加總符號

如果要表達所有元素的加總,我們可以寫成$$x_1 + x_2 + x_3 + \cdots + x_n$$,或是我們可以用符號
$$\sum$$代表

$$x_1 + x_2 + x_3 + \cdots + x_n = \sum_{i=1}^nx_i$$

如果我們要計算每個元素的平方和,可以表達成下面方式

$$x_1^2 + x_2^2 + x_3^2 + \cdots + x_n^2 = \sum_{i=1}^nx_i^2$$

描述資料的方式

通常描述資料會有兩中方式

  1. 集中趨勢(central tendency)
  2. 變異性(variability)
    (補集中趨勢和變異性的圖)

集中趨勢(Central Tendency)

  1. 我們最常用的Central Tendency計算方式就是平均值,我們用$$\bar{x}$$(音:x bar)代表”樣本平均數”,他的計算方式如下

$$\bar{x} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^nx_i}{n}$$

而我們用$$\mu$$代表母體平均數。通常我們用英文字母代表樣本,希臘字母代表母體。

  1. 中位數,比起平均數更能夠對付極端值。

變異性(variability)

  • deviation: 每一個資料點和平均的”距離”和”方向”,注意deviation是有正負號的,所以直接相加平均正負會相消。
  • sample variance(變異數): 為了解決正負相消的問題,我們可以將每一個deviation平方後相加再除以元數個數-1。

$$s^2 = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^n(x_i - \bar{x})^2}{n-1}$$

  • sample standard devitaion: 為了得到有意義的變異測量值,將sample variance開根號後就可以得到sample standard devitaion

$$s = \sqrt{s^2}$$

$$s^2 = $$ sample variance(樣本變異數)
$$s = $$ sample standard devitaion(樣本標準差)
$$\sigma^2 =$$ population variance(母體變異數)
$$\sigma =$$ population standard devitaion(母體標準差)

用標準差來描述單一樣本(單一資料集)

前面我們已經知道如果比較兩個樣本,standard devitaion越大表示變異性越大,也就是我們知道用standard devitaion來比較兩個樣本的相對變異程度。這節我們要用standard devitaion來描述單一個樣本。
如果對於frequency distributionj為對稱鐘形,根據經驗法則,

  1. 通常68%的Experimental unit會落在平均的正負一個標準差之內,也就是對於樣本來說$$(\bar{x} - s, \bar{x} + s)$$,對於母體來說$$(\mu - \sigma, \mu + \sigma)$$
  2. 通常95%的Experimental unit會落在平均的正負兩個標準差之內,也就是對於樣本來說$$(\bar{x} - 2s, \bar{x} + 2s)$$,對於母體來說$$(\mu - 2\sigma, \mu + 2\sigma)$$
  3. 通常99.7%的Experimental unit會落在平均的正負三個標準差之內,也就是對於樣本來說$$(\bar{x} - 3s, \bar{x} + 3s)$$,對於母體來說$$(\mu - 3\sigma, \mu + 3\sigma)$$

描述單一個測量值在全部測量值的位置

如果要描述一個測量值在所有測量值的位置,例如個人所得在所有勞工所得的位置。我們可以用z-score來描述。z-score利用平均和標準差來描述一個側量值所在的位置。其公式如下。
對於樣本:

$$z = \frac{x - \bar{x}}{s}$$

對於母體:

$$z = \frac{x - \mu}{\sigma}$$

z-score是有正負號的,正值越大代表這個測量值大於平均值越多,反之越少。
(補上p79的圖)

CH3機率

事件、樣本空間、和機率

以丟硬幣為例

  • observation, measurement:紀錄丟硬幣出現的結果
  • experiment: 完成投擲多次硬幣並且記錄丟硬幣的結果的過程。
  • sample point: 整個experiment最基礎的出現結果,以硬幣來說,正面反面各是一個sample point,以骰子來說1,2,3,4,5,6都分別是一個sample point。
    已丟兩個硬幣為例,總共有4個sample point,分別為正正、正反、反正、反反
  • sample space:包含所有sample point的集合
    丟一個硬幣的sample space為 S:{正, 反}
    丟兩個硬幣的sample space為 S:{正正、正反、反正、反反}
    丟骰子的sample space為 S:{1,2,3,4,5,6}

sample point的機率規定

  1. 每一個sample point的機率一定要介於0和1之間。
  2. sample space裡面所有sample point的機率加總必須為1

event事件

event是一組sample point,他可以只包含一個sample point,也可以包含多個sample point

event的機率

就是event內所有的sample point的總和

聯集Unions和交集Intersections

聯集(or)
(P131的圖)
交集(and)
(P131的圖)

Complementary Event補集合

event A的補集合的事件就是由所有不包含A事件sample point所構成。$$A$$的補集合記為$$A^s$$

$$P(A)+P(A^s)=1$$

互斥事件的加法法則(Mutually Exclusive Events)

加法法則 $$P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A \cap B)$$
互斥事件代表兩個事件不會同時發生,例如丟硬幣正面和反面不會同時出現,因此$$P(A \cap B)=0$$。因此對於互斥事件,$$P(A \cup B) = P(A) + P(B)$$

條件機率

給定A事件發生的條件下,B事件發生的機率。例如丟一個骰子,在丟出來的數字小於3的條件下,出現偶數的機率。

$$P(A \mid B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}$$

乘法定律與獨立事件(Independent Event)

從前面的條件機率經過移項後就可以得到

$$P(A \cap B) = P(B)P(A \mid B)$$

而如果A和B的機率不會互相影響,A B兩個事件就是獨立事件,也就是

$$P(A \mid B) = P(A)$$

$$P(B \mid A) = P(B)$$
獨立事件有三個重點

  1. 獨立事件沒辦法用作圖或是直覺判斷,必須透過計算來驗證他是獨立事件。
  2. 互斥事件(Mutually Exclusive Events)不是獨立事件(Independent Event),假設A,B為互斥事件,因為互斥事件的關係,如果B發生則$$P(A \mid B) = 0$$,而因此$$P(A) \neq P(A \mid B)$$,所以不可能滿足獨立事件的條件$$P(A \mid B) = P(A)$$。
  3. 計算獨立事件的交集十分簡單,$$P(A \cap B) = P(A)P(B \mid A)$$,因為獨立事件的關係$$P(B \mid A)=P(B)$$,所以獨立事件的交集事件為$$P(A \cap B) = P(A)P(B)$$

隨機抽樣

每一個樣本被抽中的機率都相同

貝氏定律

$$P(A \mid B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}$$

CH4隨機變數random variable和機率分布

隨機變數的兩種類型

  • 隨機變數的定義
    隨機變數是把實驗會出現的所有結果用數字表達,每一個sample point都會有一個數字。例如以丟兩個銅板為例,我們可以計算出現人頭的數量,因此我們的random variable就會有0, 1, 2 三個。random在這裡代表的意義是這些數字在每次實驗中都是隨機出現的。

兩種類型的random variable

  • discrete random variable 例如丟兩個銅板出現頭的個數
  • continuous random variable 例如鑽油井挖到多深會挖到石油

probability distribution of diserete random variable

diserete random variable 的probability distribution可以是一個圖、表或是公式。他描述的是每一個random variable的發生的機率。
以丟兩個硬幣為例,我們以觀察到頭的個數作為random variable並計為x,x總共有三種可能,分別是頭出現0次,1次,2次(0, 1, 2)。
丟硬幣可能出現的sampling point共有HH, HT, TH, TT四種(H:頭, T:字)。
計算probability distribution如下

$$P(x=0)=P(TT) = \frac{1}{4}$$

$$P(x=1)=P(TH) + P(HT) = \frac{1}{2}$$

$$P(x=2)=P(HH) = \frac{1}{4}$$

probability distribution的必要條件

Discrete Random Variable x 的probability distribution必要條件

  1. $$p(x) \geq 0$$
  2. $$\sum{p(x)} = 1$$,其中 $$\sum{p(x)}$$ 是把所有可能的random variable x都算進去加總

期望值Expected Value

期望值其實就是population mean
以隨機變數Random Variable x為例
$$\mu = E(x) = \sum{xp(x)}$$
注意,期望值不一定會是Random Variable可能出現的值,以擲骰子為例,期望值不一定會是1~6其中一個整數

期望值的直觀解釋
https://www.probabilisticworld.com/intuitive-explanation-expected-value/

隨機變數的變異數(Variance)

$$\sigma^2 = E[(x - \mu)^2] = \sum{(x - \mu)^2p(x)}$$

隨機變數的標準差(Standard deviation)

$$\sigma = \sqrt{\sigma^2}$$

Sample Distributions

  • parameters: 用來描述母體probability distributions的數值,例如用來描述binomial distributaion的成功機率p, 或者是描述normal distribution的$$\mu$$平均和$$\sigma$$標準差都是parameters。
    因為是描述母體,所以parameters是固定的數值,但是通常也是未知的或是永遠無法確切知道的

  • sample statistic: 用來描述sample的數值,他是由sample的oberservation計算而來的。例如$$\bar{x}$$平均、$$s^2$$以及s標準差。
    藉由這些sample statistic內含的一些資訊,我們可以用來推斷母體的parameter。

sample statistic能夠直接拿來推論parameters嗎?

我們從由sample取得的一個oberservation可以算出sample statistic。每次的oberservation所計算的sample statistic也不完全相同。
舉例來說,我們想要推斷丟公平骰子出現點數的期望值$$\mu$$,而我們也已知$$\mu = 3.5$$(在現實情況下$$\mu$$幾乎都是未知的)。
假設每次oberservation都丟三次,第一次的觀察結果是2, 2, 6,$$\bar{x} = 3.33$$ 中位數m為3,我們可以看到$$\bar{x}$$比較接近母體的$$\mu$$。
第二次oberservation結果為3, 4, 6,$$\bar{x} = 4.33$$,m=4,這次反而是中位數比較接近母體的$$\mu$$。
由此可知我們沒辦法直接比較哪一個sample statistic比較適合拿來推論parameters,而其根本的原因是因為sample statistic本身也是random variable,因為不同的sample本身就會產生出不同的sample statistic。
也因為sample statistic是random variable的原因,要比較他們就必須用他們的probility distribution

sample statistic的sampling distribution

sample statistic的probility distribution稱為sampling distribution。舉例來說,假設一間工廠生產的鐵條長度$$\mu = 0.3$$標準差為0.005。假設一個實驗每次隨機抽出25根鐵條,並且量測每一根的長度後計算平均長度$$\bar{x}$$。假如這個實驗做很多次的話,每一次實驗的$$\bar{x}$$都會不太一樣,而這些大量實驗所產生的$$\bar{x}$$的分布圖就是$$\bar{x}$$的sampling distribution。
sampling distribution是經由重複操作”抽取n個measurements”的實驗所計算的sample statistic的分布

圖例:
https://onlinestatbook.com/stat_sim/sampling_dist/index.html

Sample Distribution形狀的特性

假如被抽樣的母體是常態分布,而且也只有母體是常態分布的情況下,則不管實驗抽樣的n的大小,他的Sample Distribution也一定是常態分佈

中央極限定理(Central Limit Theorem)

假設我們想要推論一個母體的平均數$$\bar{x}$$,於是我們進行抽樣並且每次實驗都抽取n個樣本來計算平均,這個實驗重複非常多次而得到Sample Distribution,我們可以觀察到$$\bar{x}$$的Sample Distribution的母體平均數$$\mu_\bar{x}$$、標準差$$\sigma_\bar{x}$$,以及被抽樣的母體的平均數$$\mu$$和標準差$$\sigma$$的關係為

  1. Sample Distribution的平均 = 母體的平均,$$\mu_\bar{x} = E(\bar{x}) = \mu$$
  2. $$Sample Distribution的標準差等於 = \frac{母體標準差}{\sqrt{n}}$$,也就是
    $$\sigma_\bar{x} = \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}$$
    不管母體的分布是什麼,當n月大的時候Sample Distribution就越接近常態分佈,而且並議會越小越,資料越集中。

CH5 Inference Based on a Single Sample

本章的重點在於如何運用一組資料(Single Sample)來進行預測

target parameter

對於母體我們有興趣但是未知的參數我們稱為target parameter例如母體平均數。

point estimator

利用樣本的一個數值來預測母體的target parameter稱為point estimator。例如我們利用樣本的平均$$\bar{x}$$來推估

母體平均的信賴區間 : Normal (z) Statistic

假設銀行要推估所有欠債兩個月以上的帳號平均欠債的金額,於是做了一次實驗抽出一百個欠債兩個月以上的帳號並計算樣本平均$$\bar{x}$$。接下來要計算樣本平均$$\bar{x}$$推估母體平均的準確度。
先回顧一下根據中央極限定理,樣本平均的Sample Distribution在每次抽樣的樣本數n夠大的時候會接近常態分佈。而interval estimator如下:
$$\bar{x} \pm 1.96\sigma_\bar{x}= \bar{x} \pm \frac{1.96\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}$$

從Sample Distribution得圖上來看,我們畫了一個上下邊界在Sample Distribution上,而邊界的中心是母體標準差。(根據中央極限定理,Sample Distribution的平均數會近似於母體平均數)。
回到我們計算欠債平均金額的實驗中,我們這次實驗取得的樣本會落在這上下邊界範圍內的機率是多少?因為如果我們取得的樣本可以落在這上下邊界之內,我們所算出來的interval estimator就會包含母體平均,超過邊界則interval estimator內不會包含母體平均。
從常態分佈下抽取一個樣本落在距離平均一個標準差內機率0.95。
可以參考下面網站

簡單來說,我們在這裡算出一個interval estimator,而真正的母體平均數會落在這個interval estimator內的機率是confidence coefficient。
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confidence level 和 confidence coefficient

confidence coefficient是我們隨機抽取的樣本所匯出的confidence interval包含母體平均的機率,而confidence level則是confidence coefficient以百分比的方式呈現。例如confidence coefficient為0.95,則confidence level為95%。

使用Normal (z) Statistic的條件

  1. 樣本數n要大於30,因為根據中央極限定理當n大於30時,Sample Distribution會接近常態分佈。
  2. 樣本必須是從母體中隨機抽取的

$$\alpha$$與confidence coefficient

利用樣本的一個數值來預測母體的target parameter稱為point estimator。例如我們利用樣本的平均$$\bar{x}$$來推估。
例如:
假設我們想要估計一個城市的平均收入,但我們無法調查每一個人。因此,我們可以從這個城市隨機抽取一些人(樣本),並計算他們的平均收入(樣本平均值)。然後,我們可以使用這個樣本平均值作為整個城市平均收入的點估計。

interval estimator

interval estimator是一個公式,它告訴我們如何使用樣本數據來計算一個區間,以估計目標參數。

Confidence Interval for a Population Mean: Normal (z) Statics

假設銀行想推估呆帳平均所欠下的金額,於是隨機抽樣100個呆帳帳戶出來計算出sample mean $$\bar{x}$$,並且想利用$$\bar{x}$$推估母體的平均$$\mu$$。在這裡$$\bar{x}$$就是$$\mu$$的point estimator。
接下來要計算interval estimator,而根據Central Limit Theorem可以知道如果每次抽樣的數量n夠大,則Sample Distribution接近為常態分布,而且Sample Distribution的平均值

如此一來我們可以改寫confidence interval的公式為:

$$\bar{x} \pm (z_{\frac{\alpha}{2}})\sigma_{\bar{x}}= \bar{x} \pm z_{\frac{\alpha}{2}}(\frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}})$$

其中$$z_{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$$為z值在頭部面積為$$\frac{\alpha}{2}$$的時候的值。
而$$\sigma_{\bar{x}}$$ 是sample statistic $$\bar{x}$$ 的Sample Distribution,計算方式是母體標準差除以樣本數的平方根。當樣本數夠大的時候(通常大於30),可以用單次抽樣的標準差sample statistic s代替母體標準差$\sigma$。
也就是說當樣本數大於30時,式子可以改寫成
$$\bar{x} \pm (z_{\frac{\alpha}{2}})\frac{s}{\sqrt{n}}$$

概念釐清

特別注意,這個章節我們的目標是只做一次experiment,進而推斷出母體平均數。所以我們Sample Distribution是未知的,因為Sample Distribution要做很多次實驗才能得到。
這也就是為什麼$$\sigma_{\bar{x}}$$是未知的,而且$$\sigma_{\bar{x}}$$所指的母體是Sample Distribution,跟我們要推估的母體不是同一個母體。
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5.3 Student’s t Statistic

有些狀況下我們可以抽取的樣本數很少,例如藥物的人體實驗,這是後使用z statistic就會變得不準確。這裡將介紹t Statistic來處理這個狀況。
當樣本數小於30的時候我們面臨兩個問題

  1. 樣本數小於30,不能使用中央極限定理,也因此不能直接假設Sample Distribution為常態分佈。
    • 解法:在前面我們可以發現到,如果母體為常態分佈,那即使樣本很少,Sample Distribution也會接近常態分佈。引此我們假設母體為常態分布。
  2. 母體標準差$\sigma$是未知的而且我們不能再用單次抽樣的標準差s來代替,因為樣本數太少了。所以z statistic的公式也不能使用,因為他需要$\sigma$良好的估計值。
    • 解法:我們定義t statistic來處理這個問題。t statistic的公式如下
      $$t=\frac{\bar{x}-\mu}{s/\sqrt{n}}$$

在這裡sample statistic s是單次抽樣的標準差,取代了母體標準差$\sigma$。
假如我們是從常態分佈的母體抽樣,那麼t statistic的分佈會接近常態分佈。而t statistic和z statistic的差別在於t statistic多了一個random quantities s,也因此他的變動會比z statistic大。

t的Sample Distribution中實際變異量取決於樣本大小n。我們通常將他表示為自由度(degrees of freedom)為n-1的t分佈。回顧一下(n-1)是計算$s^2$的分母,所以如果n越小那sample distribution的變異量就越大。

對於small-sample 的confidence interval有以下結論

  • 對於平均數$\mu$,small-sample的confidence interval如下,其中$t_{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$為(n-1)自由度

$\bar{x} \pm t_{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\frac{s}{\sqrt{n}}$

  • 計算small-sample的confidence interval有以下條件
    • 樣本是隨機從母體抽出
    • 母體的分布必須接近常態分布

5.3 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion

以市場調查為例,一間公司想知道消費者會選擇自己的品牌或是其他品牌。注意在這裡選擇品牌是一個qualitative variable,所以我們要用proportion來描述,而且這個問題是一個二元問題,因此我們要計算的是binoimal experiment中的p,也就是成功比例。要估計p我們可以利用計算樣本的成功比$\hat p$

$$\hat p=\frac{x}{n}=\frac{消費者選擇這間公司的品牌的人數}{問卷總人數}$$

而為了要計算$\hat p$的可靠度,我們將$\hat p$視為平均數,也就是說選擇這間公司品牌的人p計為1,選擇其他品牌的人q計為0,全部相加後除與總抽樣人數n,如此一來就可以用前面計算平均數的方法來推估$\hat p$的可靠度。

$\hat p$ 的Sampling Distribution

  1. $\hat p$的Sampling Distribution的平均數為p
  2. $\hat p$的Sampling Distribution的標準差為$\sqrt{\frac{pq}{n}}$,也就是$\sigma_{\hat p} = \sqrt{\frac{pq}{n}}$
  3. 對於large samples,$\hat p$的Sampling Distribution接近常態分佈。large samples的定義為np>5且nq>5。

常用參考資料

https://cqeacademy.com/cqe-body-of-knowledge/quantitative-methods-tools/point-estimates-and-confidence-intervals/